Universal Religious Zionism

Chapter III. PRACTICE

Integration of Universal Values into Judaism

Extracting Divine Sparks from the Shells of “Isms”

Contents of this page:

• 1. Selective Inclusion: Evaluating Universal Values for Orthodox Acceptance
• 2. Two Groups of Universal Values Awaiting Integration into Judaism
• 3. Analysis of the Sparks and Shells of Undisputed Universal Values
• 4. Analysis of the Sparks and Shells of Disputed Universal Values

1. Selective Inclusion: Evaluating Universal Values for Orthodox Acceptance

Looking ahead, we envision the continued integration of the Divine sparks embedded in universal values into the framework of Judaism—a process which, according to Rav Kook, is vital for Judaism to realize its spiritual mission in the revival and flourishing of the Jewish state. However, not all of these sparks can be absorbed at the current stage of development. The process must be gradual, aligned with the spiritual growth of the Jewish people and the ongoing maturation of these values within their respective civilizational contexts.

Many within Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox communities perceive certain universal values as “liberal” impositions on a traditionally conservative framework. In light of this dynamic, we set aside such contested values and do not advocate for their integration into Judaism at this stage. When a particular value encounters significant resistance or fails to resonate within modernist Orthodox circles, it indicates that the value is not yet mature enough for religious incorporation.

2. Two Groups of Universal Values Awaiting Integration into Judaism

In the meantime, we identify two categories of universal values that, to varying degrees, are ready for integration into Judaism. We refer to them as undisputed and disputed values, each requiring a distinct approach.[1]

Group A: Undisputed Universal Values

These values are ready for immediate engagement, as they enjoy broad acceptance within Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox communities. However, they are typically embraced “as part of our lives” rather than “as part of our Torah”—a distinction that recurs throughout this book and lies at the core of our thesis. The ultimate objective of Universal Religious Zionism is to facilitate the transition of such universal values from the realm of the secular to that of the sacred. Our aspiration is rooted in Rav Kook’s well-known vision of Judaism’s evolution, captured in the epigraph of this book: “The old shall be renewed, and the new sanctified.”

In our classification, the undisputed values are:

A-1. Science and Technology: Divinely Ordained Understanding and Transformation of the World

A-2. Art and Aesthetics: Imitating the Divine Creator Through Human Creative Expression

A-3. Critical Thinking: Doubt, Disagreement, and Conflict for the Sake of Heaven

A-4. Ethical Intuition: Recognizing the Inner Voice, Even When It Conflicts with Halacha

A-5. Holistic Learning: Appreciating Creation in the Full Spectrum of Knowledge and Experience

A-6. Game and Humor: Play as Self-Expression and Laughter as Transcending Logic

A-7. Material Success: The Religious Value of Prosperity

A-8. Environmentalism: Torah-Inspired Caring for Nature

A-9. Work Ethic: Work as a Service to God

These values transcend particular religious or cultural identities; they are truly universal and constitute core pillars of any advanced modern society. Because they do not generate resistance within the modernist Orthodox camp, they should be prioritized for integration. Nonetheless, this process will require considerable intellectual and spiritual effort, as it entails recontextualizing these values within a distinctly religious framework.

Group B: Disputed Universal Values

Although the values in this category are contested and often provoke debate, they continue to resonate within modernist Orthodox communities. Disputed values are typically encased in thicker ideological shells than their undisputed counterparts, making them more objectionable to segments of the religious public. Extracting the underlying Divine sparks from these shells will require a more rigorous intellectual and practical effort.

Such values are best integrated through natural development, not by imposition. Rather than confronting those who object, individuals and communities inclined toward these values should cultivate internal dialogue, allowing for a gradual process of clarification and reframing. Over time, this reflective engagement may lead to a broader recognition of the values’ religious significance.

In our classification, the disputed values are:

B-1. Feminism: Evolving Role of Women in Orthodox Judaism

B-2. Vegetarianism: The Garden of Eden Ideal

B-3. Ideals Precede Commandments: Restoring the Right Order

B-4. Independent Religious Choice: Spiritual Growth Through Responsible Decision-Making

B-5. Tolerance of Cultural and Religious Diversity: Enriching Oneself by Recognizing Others’ Values

B-6. Progress: The Journey from Creation to the Messianic Age

B-7. Democracy: The Responsibility of Every Citizen and the Spiritual Growth of Society

B-8. Inalienable Rights: Reflecting the Divine Image in Every Individual

B-9. Universalism: Appeal to Humanity from the Land of Israel

In the next two sections, we will examine a selection of universal values by tracing their origins in the Tanakh and classical Jewish sources, while also identifying the ideological shells of modern “isms” that draw energy from these values yet distort their essence.

We make no claim to exhaustiveness; our aim is to sketch a broad outline that can serve as a foundation for deeper exploration. This overview highlights key dimensions—some well-established, others more exploratory, reflecting our own original approaches. A systematic study of each value, including its potential incorporation into the religious worldview and educational curriculum, will form the next phase of the Universal Religious Zionism project.

3. Analysis of the Sparks and Shells of Undisputed Universal Values

A-1. Science and Technology: Divinely Ordained Understanding and Transformation of the World[2]

The Divine aspects of science and technology are rooted in God’s command to Adam to dominate the world (Genesis 1:26). Rav Soloveitchik explores this concept in remarkable depth in his classic The Lonely Man of Faith through the lens of two archetypes, Adam the First, the majestic man of domination, and Adam the Second, the man of faith. Mastering nature—and himself as a part of nature—through scientific and technological conquest is not merely a means to achieve something higher but a Divine commandment, the very existential mission of Adam the First.

Created in the image of God, we are obligated to live in conditions that reflect and honor this Divine likeness. Science and technology serve as instruments in this pursuit, underscoring their profound religious significance.

Science broadens human perception of the Divine—expanding the vessels, in Kabbalistic terms (Chapter II, 7). A worldview lacking scientific knowledge leads to a primitive understanding of religious concepts. The Vilna Gaon warned that ignorance of science significantly obstructs comprehension of the Torah. Rav Kook echoed this sentiment repeatedly, stressing that scientific progress must be embraced to deepen religious insights.[3] As noted earlier, the need to expand our vessels for receiving Divine Light was less urgent in times of slower historical development. In the current era—marked by rapid civilizational advancement and an overwhelming influx of Divine Light characteristic of the Messianic Age—this expansion has become essential.

The Shells of Science and Technology

The Divine spark within science can become obscured when it is absolutized, manifesting as scientism, the belief that science is the sole arbiter of truth. This worldview encourages the unfounded imposition of scientific principles onto all domains of life, dismissing any form of knowledge that cannot be quantified or empirically verified as illegitimate. The problem is further compounded by science’s adherence to a strictly causal framework, which excludes teleological explanations—those grounded in purpose or design—that are central to Judaism.

A-2. Art and Aesthetics: Imitating the Divine Creator Through Human Creative Expression

The human drive for aesthetics and art that transcend practical function is deeply rooted in our nature and warrants serious religious reflection.

Art is the most vivid expression of the human creator imitating the Divine Creator. Since God is first revealed in the Torah as the Creator of the world (Bore, Yotser), the realization of our creative potential becomes a means of emulating Him, thereby deepening our dialogue with the Divine. It is through the joy of the artistic creative process that we most vividly encounter the Divine Light.

Art plays a profound role in expanding the soul’s vessels to receive Divine Light. A classic example is the use of music in the training of prophets (1 Samuel 10:5). This creative capacity extends beyond artistic expression and proves vital in other domains as well. Notably, imagination—the cornerstone of artistic creation—is essential for engaging with and responding to the unfolding Messianic process.

Art offers a unique path to knowing God through self-discovery, grounded in the recognition that we are created in His image. It aligns with the religious pursuit of transcendent truth by engaging intuitive and emotional dimensions that lie beyond rational understanding. By revealing aspects of the Divine inaccessible to science, art enriches our spiritual journey and serves as a vital counterbalance to the potential absolutization of scientific knowledge.

Beauty is one of the attributes of the Divine. The experience of beauty evokes a sense of ecstasy—an emotion that originates from a Divine source. Without such encounters, our connection to God remains incomplete.

The Jewish mission to serve as a light to the nations necessitates mastery of artistic expression at the highest level. While countless individual Jews have made remarkable contributions to the arts, these accomplishments have largely taken place within the cultural frameworks of their host societies. As the State of Israel enters a new phase of national maturity, an authentic Jewish artistic voice is beginning to emerge. Only through the collective cultivation of beauty can we, as a nation, effectively convey our message to the world. If the metaphorical Japheth—symbolizing aesthetic excellence—does not dwell within the tent of Shem (Genesis 9:27), then our tent is not yet in proper order.

In contemporary Israel, aesthetic living is too often neglected. The signs are visible in the dusty windows, rusting bars, tangled electrical wires, and littered streets and parks that mar the public landscape. Such disregard for visual and environmental order would be considered unacceptable in most European cities. Addressing this problem requires more than municipal reform—it demands a shift in public consciousness. Here, Judaism and its religious leadership have a vital role to play: to awaken aesthetic sensitivity by framing it as a religious value.

The Talmud teaches that a sage with a stain on his garment desecrates the name of God[4] highlighting the connection between outward appearance and the sanctity of Torah. This principle should extend beyond personal dress to encompass public spaces as well. To litter the Land of Israel is, in effect, to desecrate the Divine name. We are religiously obligated to inhabit environments that reflect our Divine essence.

Caring for the cleanliness and aesthetic beauty of the Land of Israel is not merely a civic duty; it is a spiritual act and a tangible expression of ownership. Responsible homeowners tend to their homes with pride—something not typically expected of temporary renters. And if we neglect these duties, can we really call ourselves the Land’s rightful owners?

The Shells of Aesthetics and Art

The appeal and power of beauty and the arts are undeniable. Yet their absolutization results in a hollow ideal—the belief that “beauty will save the world”—and in the mistaken notion that aesthetics naturally gives rise to ethics.[5] This view is no less naïve than the belief that science alone can unlock all the mysteries of existence and single-handedly redeem humanity.

A more balanced and constructive perspective recognizes science, art, and religion as distinct spheres of human activity, each governed by its own internal logic and principles. None should claim supremacy or seek to replace the others; instead, their integrity lies in their mutual respect and complementary roles in the human experience.

We acknowledge that art often exists in tension with Torah values. The depiction of nudity and indecency in art presents a particularly difficult challenge, as it stands in clear contrast to the standards of modesty upheld by Jewish tradition. As a result, some devoutly observant individuals distance themselves from the world of art altogether—a tendency especially noticeable among baalei teshuvah[6] for whom art often held deep personal significance prior to their religious transformation.

Yet we maintain that engaging with art—even when it unsettles our religious sensibilities—is vital. To avoid it entirely is to risk narrowing our perception of the Divine Light, which manifests in multifaceted and often unexpected ways. Each person must navigate this tension individually, but the integration of this inner struggle into a coherent theological framework remains incomplete. Like many profound questions, we continue to dwell within this unresolved space—trusting that greater clarity may emerge in time, perhaps through the evolving lens of Universal Religious Zionism.

A-3. Critical Thinking: Doubt, Disagreement, and Conflict for the Sake of Heaven

Western thought and culture are deeply grounded in the tradition of critical thinking. Similarly, the history of Judaism is characterized by vigorous internal debate and dispute among sages, demonstrating that critical inquiry is intrinsic to the Jewish tradition. Yet in contemporary religious life, critical thinking—especially self-critical thinking—often plays a limited role, eclipsed by reverence for spiritual authority. Fostering a culture of reflective critique is essential for the continued growth and vitality of Orthodox Judaism.

The Divine spark of critical thinking lies in the recognition that what we call “truth” is dynamic and evolving, not a fixed absolute. According to Rav Kook, the capacity for growth and transformation is itself a Divine attribute.[7] This perspective invites the questioning of all claims and affirms that no viewpoint is immune to challenge.

Critical thinking serves as an antidote to fanaticism. It challenges dogmatism—the uncritical conviction in the absolute correctness of one’s own views—by acknowledging that one’s perspective is not the only valid one. Importantly, fanaticism is not confined to extreme positions; it can also arise within seemingly moderate or centrist viewpoints. For this reason, the need for such an antidote applies universally, not only to those at the ideological margins.

 Doubt prevents the absolutization of our inherently limited perceptions of the Divine. This awareness gives rise to a more nuanced and mature post-atheistic faith, in which doubt serves to deepen rather than diminish religious life.

The clash of authoritative opinions creates a “void” in which an autonomous individual can grow spiritually.[8] From a Kabbalistic perspective, such conflict is not merely negative but can act as a catalyst for personal development and spiritual ascent—thus affirming the religious value of conflict.

The Shells of Critical Thinking

The shell that encloses the Divine spark of critical thinking emerges in the form of the absolutization of critique—an approach that ultimately distracts and destabilizes society. A prominent example is neo-Marxian Critical Theory, which often seeks to dismantle the achievements of Western civilization rather than offer a constructive critique.

A-4. Ethical Intuition: Recognizing the Inner Voice Even When It Conflicts with Halacha

The basic intuitive sense of right and wrong, independent of external sources or beliefs—the Kantian “moral law within us”—is a central feature of the Western mindset. At first glance, this idea may appear at odds with Judaism, in which nearly half of the 613 divinely ordained commandments address ethical matters, seemingly leaving little room for autonomous morality. Yet in reality, the Torah’s ethical system not only makes room for the inner moral voice—it actively requires its presence.

The Sages of the Talmud differ in their views regarding the nature of the Torah’s ethical commandments. Some regard them as a new moral code revealed to the Israelites with the giving of the Torah. Others hold that these principles were innate to the Jewish people and had been practiced even before Sinai—certainly by the Patriarchs and Matriarchs.[9] According to this latter view, the innovation at Sinai lay not in the content of the ethical code but in its elevation to the status of a Divine Covenant.

In Judaism, ethical understanding emerges from the interplay between Divine Law and the individual’s inner ethical sense. In our terms, this process is the dialogue between God and humanity in a historical and cultural context, leading to the evolution of ethical perceptions. What was ethically acceptable at one stage of societal development may become unacceptable at later stages. The ideal of the Messianic Age is envisioned as the integration of autonomous and Revelation-based ethics, as expressed in Jeremiah 31:34: “No longer they will need to teach one another and say to one another, ‘Heed the Lord’; for all of them, from the least of them to the greatest, shall heed Me—declares the Lord.”

Ethical intuition is deeply rooted in the Tanakh and classical Jewish sources. The motif of individuals challenging God’s explicit commands on moral grounds recurs throughout the biblical narrative—from Abraham to Moses, and from Jonah to Job—as well as in Talmudic discourse and the teachings of Hasidic masters such as Rabbi Levi Yitzchak of Berditchev, renowned as the advocate of the Jewish people before the Heavenly court. In Hasidism, the theme of discerning the voice of God from within is particularly prominent. These narratives reveal a persistent tension between the external expression of the Divine will and its internal realization within human conscience.

When ethical intuition comes into conflict with religious law, Halacha should not simply suppress the inner moral voice. The Divine presence is not confined to the external forms of religious tradition and legal practice; it also resonates within the human soul through ethical intuition. Those deeply attuned to their inner moral compass—grounded in intuitive awareness—will follow it even in the face of persuasive reasoning or communal pressure. To act against such convictions is to risk inner rupture, thereby undermining the very integrity that authentic religious observance seeks to uphold.

The aim should not be a mere compromise between ethical intuition and Halacha, which may serve only as a provisional solution. Rather, the goal is synthesis—a deeper, enduring resolution that integrates both the authority of Halacha and the integrity of moral intuition, preserving the letter of the law while giving voice to the spirit that animates it.

The Shell of Ethical Intuition

The shell of the divinely inspired moral inner voice can take the form of absolutized ethical autonomy—the belief that people have an innate ability to distinguish right from wrong without relying on rational thought or legal frameworks. This view leaves no room for the concept of good and evil as revealed by our Creator through the Law. Rather than empowering us, this detachment from the Source weakens us. In Judaism, ethics is grounded neither solely in autonomous reasoning nor solely in Revelation. Instead, it arises from an ongoing dialogue between God and human souls—individuals, nations, and all of humanity.

The limits of ethical intuition become clear when it is shaped by incomplete understanding, shallow analysis, personal bias, or hasty judgment—a reality that occurs all too often.

A-5. Holistic Learning: Appreciating Creation in the Full Spectrum of Knowledge and Experience

A well-rounded education—both in formal settings and through life experience—has long been a core universal value upheld by advanced cultures from antiquity to the present. Without a broad cultural foundation—what we refer to as “spacious vessels for receiving the Divine Light”—it is difficult to develop a coherent worldview or fully realize one’s potential for understanding and living according to the Torah. Although this perspective has not been consistently emphasized throughout Jewish religious tradition—particularly within Orthodoxy—it is by no means foreign to Judaism.

Broad knowledge was a requirement for members of the Sanhedrin, who were expected to know seventy languages—reflecting the understanding that true language mastery includes familiarity with the associated culture. Without this foundation, rendering complex halachic decisions and offering spiritual leadership to the nation would have been impossible. The value of a well-rounded education was emphasized by many medieval Sephardic sages, most notably Maimonides, and was later powerfully reaffirmed by Samson Raphael Hirsch in 19th-century Germany.

In our time, the leaders who have shaped—and continue to guide—Modern Orthodoxy have embodied this value, distinguished by their remarkable cultural and academic depth. The movement’s adherents are already committed to holistic learning, making its importance largely self-evident within the Modern Orthodox community.[10] This model may offer valuable insight for Israeli Religious Zionists, who are still navigating how to integrate broad education with religious tradition in a cohesive way.

What remains to be more fully developed is a deeper understanding of the religious significance of a well-rounded education and life experience—beyond its practical advantages, personal enjoyment, or social prestige.

Travel that fosters a direct appreciation of the world’s cultural and natural diversity holds a unique place in a well-rounded education. A parable attributed to Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch illustrates this insight: A righteous Jew, having lived a life devoted to the study of Torah and Talmud, stands before God upon leaving this world and proudly recounts his dedication. God responds, “All this is commendable—but have you seen My Alps? I created these majestic mountains so that people would enjoy and marvel at their beauty.”

There is no substitute for direct encounters with nature and foreign cultures. Reading, studying, or hearing about distant places cannot replicate the transformative power of personal experience. Travel offers an exceptional opportunity to broaden our worldview and deepen our appreciation of Creation. Ultimately, it expands our inner vessels for receiving Divine Light. To neglect the beauty of the natural and cultural world through direct engagement is to turn away from one of God’s profound gifts.

Like a broad education, leisure travel is valued in the Modern Orthodox community. However, it, too, should be understood on a deeper spiritual level and more fully integrated into our religious framework. We might draw inspiration from Benjamin of Tudela, the medieval Jewish traveler who journeyed across much of the known world a century before Marco Polo—not for practical gain, but to satisfy his intellectual and spiritual curiosity about distant Jewish communities. His travel diaries, originally written in Hebrew and later translated into major European languages, became an important source of knowledge about the broader world.

The Shell of Holistic Learning

The Divine spark of appreciation for the wider world can become trapped in the shell of pleasure-seeking, reducing travel to a checklist of destinations and education to the mere accumulation of books. We must remember that all we take in—whether through journeying or learning—is intended not only for personal enjoyment but for spiritual growth. These experiences are meant to be brought back into the world, enriched by our unique perspectives and deepened understanding.

A-6. Game and Humor: Play as Self-Expression and Laughter as Transcending Logic

The game is a fundamental attribute of civilization, enduring throughout history and across cultures. Johan Huizinga, in Homo Ludens (Man the Player), explores the integral role of play in society and posits that culture itself springs from play. He argues that without a certain level of playfulness, the very fabric of culture in its broadest sense becomes unsustainable.

The game, in its various formats—especially competitive sports that engage every facet of human ability—provides a platform for exploring emotions and actions that may elude us in our daily lives. The inherent unpredictability of games reflects the limitless possibilities of life, making it relevant and irresistibly appealing. However, the play should not be limited to entertainment or a pastime; it serves as a stage on which human self-expression and creativity are realized, much like any other domain of civilization.

Since antiquity, games have played a significant institutional role in Western culture, with the ancient and modern Olympic Games serving as prominent examples. In Jewish culture during the Exile, such institutionalization did not occur until the 20th century, so, unsurprisingly, this aspect of civilization received insufficient spiritual reflection within Judaism, let alone appreciation for its religious value. While observant Jews are drawn to sporting events in large numbers (as evidenced by the presence of kosher food stands at major American arenas), in a religious context, sport is limited to parables in sermons and allowing yeshiva students to play ball between classes to release their youthful energy.

As so often with Rav Kook, he offers a vision so original that it was scarcely imagined in his time—and remains striking even today—as he reveals the spiritual aspect of sports. In the late 1920s, the Mandate Palestine newspaper Doar Hayom, under the heading HaRav Kook and Football, reported Rav’s following words: “Sport is a matter of holiness. The Maccabi movement is one of the most important foundations of our national coming to life. In sports, there is much refinement and nobility of the soul. … It has much idealism. … It is a distorted opinion that opposes sport; such an opinion is not suited to life and reality. …”[11]

We aim to rekindle Rav’s enthusiasm for the game by drawing from traditional Jewish sources (see below).

Humor is a universal value found in all societies and, like art, is unique to each culture. Humor holds an important place in the Jewish tradition as a means of coping with adversity, dealing with inner turmoil, maintaining hope in difficult times, and serving as a medium for self-expression and creativity. Jewish comedians—whose humor is deeply rooted in the Jewish psyche, itself shaped by Judaism—play a leading role in modern comedy, making Jewish humor universal.

However, despite its widespread use as a communication tool by rabbis—a tradition going back to the sages of the Talmud[12]—humor’s religious value has yet to be fully developed and integrated into Judaism.

The Jewish tradition includes numerous elements that can form a foundation for a religious understanding of game and humor. A natural starting point is the Purim tradition, which profoundly unites play and humor (already connected linguistically through the shared root—sachak (to play) and tzachak (to laugh)—to express philosophical insights about the hidden and revealed, illusory appearances, and the deeper truths beneath the surface of “reality.”

The play, as depicted in the Jewish tradition, hints at its Divine quality. God is “playing with Leviathan” (Psalm 104:26), where the mystical creature symbolizes the forces of nature. According to other interpretations, playing with Leviathan is a metaphor for the World to Come, where human energy is no longer spent on material sustenance, as it is in This World, and all resources are devoted to Torah study and the pursuit of wisdom—a pure game of the mind.

In Kabbalah, God plays with the letters of the alphabet before He creates the world, signifying the foundational role of play in Creation.[13]

Isaac “playing with his wife” (Genesis 26:8) underscores the complex dynamic between play, sexuality, and laughter.

The religious value of humor lies in its power to liberate us from the stifling constraints of rigid logic. We laugh when a narrative unfolds in an unexpected, illogical way—revealing deeper and more intricate connections than we initially assumed. This release from the grip of rational predictability may come through a surprising punchline, a paradox, or the sudden resolution of a seemingly intractable problem. At its core, laughter expresses the joy of glimpsing a higher order of harmony, one that transcends conventional logic.

When we succeed in breaking through the barriers formed by our overly rigid, rational understanding of the world, we experience a joy so profound that it finds expression in laughter. For all its virtues, stability rarely inspires, and the prospect of predestination is unsettling. It is freedom—not compulsion—that is a Divine attribute, and laughter becomes a momentary feeling of nearness to God. Such is the laughter of Sarah (Genesis 18:12). By naming her son Yitzhak—meaning “he will laugh”—she enshrines within his name the notion of a supralogical destiny for the Jewish people: the most “unexpected” nation in human history.

Laughter is an integral part of the “restoration of Zion” (Psalms 126:2), reflecting the unpredictable and redemptive character of messianic times and hinting at the World to Come as an eternal form of play.

God’s laughter with the righteous in the World to Come[14]—as their ultimate reward—as well as His laughter in the Psalms (2:4; 37:13; 59:9), invites us to pursue a deeper religious understanding of play and humor. Through this lens, we can enrich both our appreciation of the Divine and our efforts to emulate it.

The most sustaining form of laughter is the ability to laugh at oneself. Without this capacity, no religious system can remain dynamic or alive. Humor serves as a safeguard, ensuring that a spiritual fortress does not harden into a prison. Accordingly, Judaism not only permits self-directed laughter—it encourages it, most notably during the festival of Purim, when even roshei yeshiva (yeshiva heads) are fair game for satire. Without a healthy measure of self-deprecating humor, one should refrain from delving into the “mysteries of the Torah” (Kabbalah), lest the scholar imagine he can fully grasp the inner workings of the Higher Worlds—which would be truly laughable.

Laughter often requires stepping beyond boundaries. The challenge, however, lies in doing so for the sake of growth while preserving the integrity of the system—a delicate but essential balancing act.

The Shell of Game and Humor

The Torah alludes to Ishmael’s improper play and laughter (Genesis 21:9), illustrating how the shell can distort the Divine sparks inherent in game and humor. This distortion arises when games meant to reflect life begin to replace it, resulting in phenomena such as gambling addiction, spectator violence, corruption, physical harm, and the dulling of consciousness—encapsulated in the ancient Roman formula of “bread and circuses.” It was precisely these vices, associated with games and public spectacles, that led the sages of the Talmud to forbid attendance at Roman theatres and stadiums, viewing them as arenas of moral decay, idolatry, and the “seat of the scornful.”[15]

Humor can become destructive when its Divine energy is trapped in the shell of cynicism, unrestrained mockery, or vulgarity. Rather than uplifting the spirit and illuminating deeper truths, misused humor diverts us from the Divine. The Talmud lists laughter as one of the key traits through which a person’s character is revealed,[16] as it has the power to expose both the noble and the unflattering aspects of one’s inner self.

A-7. Material Success: The Religious Value of Prosperity

In European civilization, views on the religious significance of material success have significantly changed over the past few centuries. The ideals of classical Christianity promoted altruism and cast self-interest in an unfavorable light. Protestantism, however, took a different view, advocating the religious merit of economic success. This perspective was further supported in the 18th century by Adam Smith, who argued that self-interest was a key driver of economic progress and contributed to the acceptance of material success as a universal value in the Western worldview. The earlier overemphasis on altruism may have stemmed from an underlying reluctance to engage in material pursuits perceived as distant from the Divine. This theological position fails to recognize that the material world—including its economic dimensions—is integral to God’s revelation to humanity.

In Judaism, deliberate poverty as a means of drawing closer to God has never been a norm. This stance stems from Judaism’s view that poverty tarnishes the ideals of the Torah and diminishes its capacity to impact the world. In Judaism, the importance of economic prosperity has always been recognized, exemplified by the story of Yosef Ish Matzliach (Joseph the Successful Man) in Genesis 39:2. The fact that all three generations of biblical patriarchs and matriarchs amassed considerable wealth dispels the notion that righteousness and material success are somehow at odds. Only an economically thriving society can afford its citizens a decent standard of living—a goal carrying intrinsic religious significance. As the 13th-century sage Rabbenu Bachya put it, “The active participation of man in the creation of his own wealth is a sign of his spiritual greatness.”[17] The incredible economic success of Jews through the millennia demonstrates that this concept is deeply embedded in Jewish consciousness.

However, in the classical and contemporary Jewish religious world (though rarely in modernist circles), it’s not uncommon to encounter the view that “wealth is only important to support Torah scholars.” While supporting houses of learning is a duty and honor, this approach is somewhat narrow. Wealth serves as a vital means for improving the world—an idea that encompasses more than just “supporting Torah scholars.”

The economic success of the State of Israel holds unique religious value. For the Jewish message to resonate globally, Israel must be a prosperous country, echoing Ecclesiastes 9:16: “The wisdom of the poor is despised, and his words are not heard.”

It follows, then, that we must deepen our understanding of the religious significance of material success.

The Shell of Material Success

The shell of material success is not merely trivial greed but an ideology that prioritizes the acquisition of material possessions and financial success above all else. Within this ideology, self-worth and social status are measured in terms of material wealth, and all other human achievements are deemed valuable only if they have a corresponding material equivalent.

A-8. Environmentalism: Torah-Inspired Caring for Nature

A religious approach to ecology is rooted in the dual commandments given to Adam by God in Genesis 2:15: to “work” the Garden, which signifies the transformation of the natural world for human benefit, and to “guard” it—primarily from himself—representing the responsibility of humanity to protect the very world it cultivates.

The Talmud and rabbinic literature trace the theme of man and ecology. “When God created the first human beings, God led them around all the trees of the Garden of Eden and said: ‘Look at My works! See how beautiful they are—how excellent! For your sake I created them all. See to it that you do not spoil and destroy My world; for if you do, there will be no one else to repair it.’”[18] The remarkable fact that the rabbis discussed stewardship of nature millennia before the Industrial Age began to have a global impact suggests that they understood it not as merely a practical measure for healthy living but as a religious duty. Indeed, as Rabbi Sacks put it: “Creation has its own dignity as God’s masterpiece, and though we have the mandate to use it, we have none to destroy or dispose of it.”[19]

In our time, as environmental consciousness becomes a standard mode of thinking, a growing movement within Judaism is beginning to engage seriously with ecological issues. A number of Orthodox organizations and individual rabbis—among them Rabbis Haggai Resnikoff and Yonatan Neril—are promoting faith-based environmental responsibility rooted in Torah values. While this movement is still in its formative stages, it is being heard, and its presence is a promising beginning. Undoubtedly, Judaism—drawing on its authentic and deeply rooted sources—has the potential to make a profound contribution to addressing this global challenge.

As with many universal values, the lead in developing a Torah-based approach to ecology has largely come from American Modern Orthodoxy, which offers a compelling model for Israeli Religious Zionists seeking to integrate environmental thinking into a broader religious framework.

The Shell of Environmentalism

The divinely ordained purpose of protecting nature is distorted when it devolves into a form of nature worship akin to neopaganism, in which humanity is portrayed as a blight upon the planet. Such ecological extremism undermines responsible stewardship by promoting a mindless opposition to fossil fuels, often disregarding the complex realities of modern energy needs and usage. These excesses risk discrediting the noble and necessary cause of environmentalism.

A-9. Work Ethic: Work as a Service to God

Work is the most foundational of all human endeavors, shaping both individuals and civilizations. People relate to work in markedly different ways, which can be understood across three distinct levels. At the most basic level, work is regarded as an unavoidable necessity for material survival—a burden to be endured, with “real life” beginning only after the workday ends. At a higher level, work is valued as a means of self-realization and social recognition. At the highest level, work becomes a vehicle for repairing and elevating the world. While still providing livelihood and personal fulfillment, such work attains profound spiritual significance. For the religious individual, it becomes an act of Divine service.

The predominance of one attitude toward work over others within a society shapes its collective work ethic, which in turn plays a decisive role in determining whether that society moves toward flourishing or stagnation.

The concept of work ethic, understood as an awareness of the spiritual value of labor, entered the Western world through Protestantism. Protestants were not, of course, the first to view work as more than a means of survival. Throughout history, people have taken pride in a job well done and recognized labor as a form of human self-expression and potential. However, it was the theology of the Reformation that “sacralized” work in the European consciousness, elevating it to the status of Divine service and establishing it as one of life’s fundamental purposes. “The maid who sweeps her kitchen does God’s will just as much as the monk who prays—not because she can sing psalms while she works, but because God loves clean floors.” These words, attributed to Martin Luther, capture the theological foundation of the Protestant work ethic. From this perspective, there is only one way to work: with the utmost dedication and excellence.

In his seminal work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Max Weber examined the impact of Reformation theology on the extraordinary socio-economic success of Protestant societies—a dynamic that eventually shaped the trajectory of the Western world and beyond. The work ethic emerged as a universal value, influencing not only economic development but also the broader contours of social progress.

Judaism contains numerous principles that could form the foundation of an authentic Jewish work ethic,[20] drawing from the Tanakh, classical, and later rabbinic sources. However, a systematic articulation of this ethic has yet to be developed; its components remain fragmented and exert limited influence on both the Jewish religious world and Israeli society at large.

Several factors contributed to the underdevelopment of the work ethic in Judaism during the Exile:

The absolute priority of preserving the nation through Torah study. In the Diaspora, the sole guarantor of Jewish continuity was religious tradition, centered on the study of the Torah and the Talmud. Work, beyond its practical role in meeting material needs, was primarily viewed as a means of sustaining religious life and institutions, rather than as an independent spiritual value in its own right.

Not belonging to the host nation. The highest expression of a work ethic involves a commitment to improving and elevating the world. In the Diaspora, however, the surrounding world belonged to nations that were often hostile and repeatedly expelled Jews and seized the fruits of their labor. Under such conditions, it is unsurprising that Jews could not regard their work as a vehicle for uplifting the world.

Restricted access to professions. Throughout the centuries of exile, Jews were excluded from many creative and prestigious professions that allowed for the realization of human talent. And work not aligned with one’s calling is rarely imbued with spiritual meaning.

Work ethic is not explicitly a Torah commandment. The Torah mandates honest business dealings as direct commandments. However, the attitude toward work itself is expressed only in terms of ideals—beneficial but not obligatory (see B-3. Ideals Precede Commandments: Restoring the Right Order). As a result, business ethics has been extensively developed and practiced in Judaism, while the work ethic remains a matter of worldview and personal choice (see below on the relationship between the two).

In the early 20th century, ideologists of both secular and religious Zionism sought to reshape the perception of work that had developed in the Exile. They emphasized the spiritual value and revitalizing effect of work on the Jewish soul. For Zionist pioneers, labor—especially working the land—became a central element in creating the “new Jew” and restoring the Jewish state. In the words of A. D. Gordon, the founder of the ideology of Kibbush HaAvoda (The Conquest of Labor): “The Land of Israel will be acquired by labor, not by fire and not by blood.” In Gordon’s system, working the Land of Israel has an intrinsic spiritual, almost mystical value, and work becomes the essence of a laborer. This ideology dominated the Second and Third Aliyah and was often called the “religion of labor.” Gordon appealed to the small fraction of Jewish people living in Palestine at the time, rather than to the Jewish people as a whole, because the spiritual value of labor can only be realized in the Land of Israel, where Jews, as a nation, bear responsibility for transforming the world. In the religious Zionist movement, analogous concepts underpinned the ideology of the HaPoel HaMizrachi party, whose slogan “Torah and Labor” encapsulates its vision.

These ideological systems played an important role in the early stages of the settlement of the Land of Israel and the establishment of the state. Over time, however, their influence waned as they focused primarily on agriculture and did not extend to all forms of work in Israel.

Despite these early contributions, it is no secret that diligence in work is often lacking in Israel. This issue is not confined to the public sector; it is also prevalent in the private sector, where competition would ostensibly eliminate substandard performance. Many do not regard work as a source of personal honor or as a spiritual act aimed at improving the world—let alone as a form of service to God. As a result, a significant portion of Israel’s creative and productive potential remains untapped. Furthermore, the neglect of work’s spiritual dimension diminishes respect for others’ labor and contributes to broader social dysfunction.

Jewish sources for the development of work ethic can be traced back to the very first labor described in the Torah—Adam’s work in the Garden of Eden: “The Lord God took the man and placed him in the Garden of Eden to work it and guard it.” (Genesis 2:15). On this, Rabbi Shimon ben Elazar said: “Even Adam did not taste anything until he worked.”[21] The Midrash teaches that Adam’s labor in the Garden was imbued with profound spiritual significance.[22]

The biblical models of work ethic are exemplified by Jacob in his service to Laban and Joseph in his service to his Egyptian masters. Both combined the highest levels of professionalism with exceptional integrity in their business dealings. Their success became not just personal prosperity but a means of fulfilling the Divine Plan—Jacob laid the foundation for the future people of Israel, and Joseph ensured their survival through the years of famine and incubation in preparation for the Exodus.

Maimonides cites Jacob’s work ethic as an example: “A worker is obliged to work with all his strength, for the righteous Jacob said (Genesis 31:7): ‘I have served your father with all my strength.’ Therefore, he was rewarded even in this world, as we are told (Genesis 30:43): ‘And the man grew exceedingly prosperous.’”

Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah said: “Great is labor, for the Shechinah did not dwell in Israel until they began to work [on the construction of the Sanctuary]: ‘And they shall make Me a Sanctuary, and I will dwell among them.’” (Exodus 25:8). Rabbi Tarfon taught in a similar way.[23]

The Talmudic literature contains numerous teachings that emphasize the value of work, presenting it not only as a necessity but as a component of a meaningful and righteous life. “Love labor, for among all the creatures that the Holy One, Blessed be He, created in His world, He entrusted labor only to man… A person [unlike animals] cannot sustain himself except through labor. Not because he is weaker than the beasts, but because labor is beloved and honorable… Love labor, for all the prophets engaged in labor… Great is labor, for all commandments and good deeds are forms of labor—except for the study of Torah and prayer.”[24]

The concept of “work on weekdays as a commandment” is based on the verse: “Six days you shall labor and do all your work, but the seventh day is the Sabbath.” (Exodus 20:9-10). Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai taught: “Just as Israel was crowned with the commandments of the Sabbath, so too was it crowned with the commandment to work on the weekdays.”[25] Similar statements are attributed to Shemaya[26] and Rabbi Yehuda HaNasi. Thus, “six days you shall labor” is interpreted as an independent commandment to work rather than merely an introduction to the prohibition of work on Shabbat. Only through this work can one meaningfully fulfill the commandment of Shabbat. At the same time, the mitzvah of Shabbat rest prevents the idolization of work.

Rabbi Yehuda bar Ilai said: “Great is labor, as it brings honor to the laborer.”[27] Rabban Gamaliel the son of Rabbi Judah Hanasi said: “Excellent is the study of the Torah when combined with a worldly occupation, for toil in them both keeps sin out of one’s mind; But [study of the] Torah which is not combined with a worldly occupation, in the end comes to be neglected and becomes the cause of sin”.[28]

In Hasidism, the Baal Shem Tov illustrates the spiritual dimension of labor through the example of a shoemaker, who, by performing his work with quality and sincere intention to serve the Almighty, can attain the highest spiritual level.

Work and business ethics are intertwined. In fact, by scrupulously adhering to business ethics—that cultivate honesty and, in turn, foster diligence—one can naturally fulfill the ideals of work ethic as well. For example, the geneviat da’at (“theft of the mind” regarding a received product) can be interpreted more broadly as a prohibition against substandard work since this is essentially deception, even if not explicitly stated in a contract.

Rambam ruled: “Just as an employer is warned not to withhold or delay the wages of a poor worker, a laborer is warned not to steal work that rightfully belongs to his employer. Specifically, he must be precise with his time—to such an extent that our Sages even ruled that workers should not recite the fourth [optional] blessing after a meal so as not to reduce their working hours”.[29]

The Shell of Work Ethic

The Divine spark of the religious essence of work can be consumed by the shell of workaholism. This does not refer to voluntary overcommitment to one’s job in pursuit of higher earnings, career advancement, recognition, or other incentives—such cases are commonplace—but rather to the idolization of work, in which everything is sacrificed to it and one’s occupation becomes the entirety of one’s identity.[30] The danger of the work ethic devolving into an all-consuming fixation—what Max Weber termed “the iron cage”—was anticipated by the very theorist of the Spirit of Capitalism. As Dennis Prager has observed, a person who cannot stop working one day each week—implicitly, on Shabbat—is merely a glorified slave. For the workaholic, ceasing to work feels akin to ceasing to exist.

Another form of shell that draws energy from the spark of labor is the Marxist view of labor relations as the only factor shaping society, including religion. However, Weber’s aforementioned study demonstrated the opposite of Marx’s Capital: religious concepts can shape attitudes toward labor and thus influence social development and the course of history.

4. Analysis of the Sparks and Shells of Disputed Universal Values

B-1. Feminism: Evolving Role of Women in Orthodox Judaism

The discourse surrounding feminism and the evolving role of women in Judaism is one of the most hotly debated topics in Modern Orthodox circles today.[31]

The notion that “women should be content with their unique role and not aspire to the religious obligations of men” is increasingly becoming less compelling. Elevating the role of women in Judaism is of critical importance, as it directly impacts half of the religious Jewish community. Many within the Modern Orthodox movement—including prominent leaders and scholars such as Professor Tamar Ross, a leading spiritual voice in Religious Zionism—view this issue as central to the continued evolution of Judaism. Moreover, the status of women serves as one of the primary lenses through which both Jewish and non-Jewish observers assess Orthodox Judaism.

The Shell of Feminism

Discussion of the evolving role of women in Judaism tends to focus almost exclusively on the positive contributions of feminism, with little attention given to its potential drawbacks. It is therefore important to recognize that, like other universal values, contemporary feminism contains both a spark and a shell. A prominent example of this shell is found in the ideologies of radical neo-Marxist feminist movements, which often emphasize gender conflict over the constructive advancement of women’s status.

B-2. Vegetarianism: The Garden of Eden Ideal

The universal value of vegetarianism is explored in Rav Kook’s essay A Vision of Vegetarianism and Peace, as well as in his personal correspondence.

Rav Kook emphasizes that God permitted the consumption of meat only after the Flood, as a concession to humanity’s moral decline and physical limitations. In contrast, under the “ideal conditions” of the Garden of Eden, human beings were commanded to maintain a vegetarian—or perhaps even vegan—diet. According to Rav Kook, commandments such as the covering of the blood of a slaughtered wild animal or bird, the separation of meat and milk, and other related laws serve as continual reminders of the moral deficiency inherent in taking animal life for food.

Rav Kook envisioned a future in which humanity’s spiritual advancement would lead to the restoration of the vegetarian ideal. He regarded the abandonment of this aspiration as religiously troubling: “Is it possible to picture that a moral goodness of great value, which already existed in the reality of the human heritage, should be lost forever?”[32]

Rav Kook maintained, however, that the transition to vegetarianism must be gradual, aligned with the deepening moral sensibilities and spiritual refinement of humanity. He cautioned against any attempt to accelerate this process prematurely. His personal conduct reflected the tension between the Torah’s ideal of vegetarianism and the current impossibility of its universal implementation. Although his diet was primarily vegetarian, Rav Kook would eat a small portion of chicken on Shabbat as a symbolic gesture—a reminder that the time for complete abstention from animal consumption had not yet arrived.

The gradual acceptance of vegetarianism within the Orthodox world is exemplified by leading figures who adopted it, including Rabbi David Cohen (“the Nazir of Jerusalem”), Rabbi Shlomo Goren, Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, and Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag.

Emerging technological solutions—such as the development of artificial meat replicating the taste, texture, and nutritional value of conventional meat—may further facilitate this shift, serving as yet another example of the spiritual potential embedded in technological advancement.

The Shell of Vegetarianism

The shell of vegetarianism emerges when the value of animal life is equated with that of human life—an ethically untenable position. This extreme perspective has led, in some cases, to disturbing comparisons between the slaughter of animals for food and the Holocaust. One striking example is the Holocaust on Your Plate campaign, which juxtaposed images from Auschwitz with those of factory-farmed animals, accompanied by captions suggesting that “leather sofas and handbags are morally equivalent to lampshades made from the skins of Holocaust victims.” While not explicitly stated, the exhibition implied that if killing animals is morally equivalent to murder, then extreme measures—including violence against farmers—could be seen as justified.

The campaign was funded by an anonymous Jewish philanthropist and developed by an artist who had lost several family members in the Holocaust. It stands as a vivid example of Jewish souls yearning for a Divine spark but, unable to locate it within Judaism, ultimately losing their moral bearings.

B-3. Ideals Precede Commandments: Restoring the Right Order[33]

The dominant principle in the Western worldview holds that ideals and goals form the foundation of any system, with norms and laws serving as their outward expression. By contrast, Jewish religious consciousness has traditionally emphasized the primacy of Law, often relegating ideals to a secondary role. This outlook is encapsulated in the maxim, “Keep the commandments and their meaning will follow naturally,” commonly associated with the frequently cited verse na’aseh ve-nishma (Exodus 24:7), “We will do, and [then] we will hear/understand.” However, it is often overlooked that in Deuteronomy (5:24), the order is reversed: shamanu ve-asinu, “We will hear/understand, and [then] we will do.”

As in many other areas, this imbalance can be attributed to the centuries during which Judaism remained in a defensive posture—first against Christianity, and later against secular ideologies and other modern “isms.” Yet in the context of modernity and Jewish sovereignty, there is a growing need for a more balanced approach—one that accords appropriate weight to both halachic observance and the pursuit of the underlying ideals.

The centrality of Law in Judaism should not obscure the deeper truth that the commandments are expressions of the Torah’s eternal ideals. This is reflected in the very structure of the Five Books of Moses, where the narrative of the values embodied in the lives of the Patriarchs and Matriarchs precedes the giving of commandments to the Jewish nation. As Rabbi Norman Lamm observed, “Halacha is minimal Judaism, and not its totality; it does not exhaust the content of the Torah” (emphasis in the original).[34]

Judaism’s ideals deserve recognition as a distinct religious category. While the Jewish tradition boasts an exceptionally rich literature devoted to the analysis and systematization of commandments, it lacks a comparable focus on ideals. Few works are dedicated to their exploration, and no comprehensive framework has been established. Classical literature typically addresses ideals through the concepts of hiddur mitzvah (the enhancement or beautification of commandments) and middot (personal virtues), but gives limited attention to ideals that fall outside these categories. This oversight results in an imbalanced portrayal of Judaism’s ethical and moral foundations. Acknowledging that many ideals extend beyond the realm of commandments or virtues is essential for a more complete understanding of Judaism’s spiritual depth.

Judaism is defined by the complementary nature of its halachic and non-halachic components. It encompasses (1) Halacha and (2) a rich and diverse body of non-halachic teachings: the Torah’s narrative, the Prophets and Writings, Aggadah, ethics, philosophy, mysticism, ideals, reflections, and historical narratives. Both quantitatively and substantively, the non-halachic dimension is in no way secondary to Halacha.[35] Yet the widespread misconception persists that Halacha is the central focus of Judaism, while all else is merely supplementary. Perhaps for this reason, the entire corpus of non-halachic Jewish thought lacks a universally accepted name. The absence of a clear, recognized term is significant: a phenomenon defined merely as a “non-something” struggles to gain full recognition in the public consciousness.

Reestablishing the balance between Halacha and the non-halachic dimensions of tradition is essential to the vitality of the State of Israel. Historically, Halacha has served as a boundary that distinguishes the Jewish people from surrounding cultures and ensures their survival, most notably through the principle of the “four cubits of Halacha,” which remains central to Haredi Judaism. However, in the State of Israel, where Judaism impacts all aspects of societal life, Halacha sometimes conflicts with the spiritual needs of society at large. This has caused many Israelis to distance themselves not only from organized Judaism but also to harbor negative sentiments toward its core principles—a trend within the Jewish people Rav Kook had already identified more than a century ago. Correcting this imbalance is crucial to reconciling tradition with the spiritual aspirations of Israeli society.

The Shell of the Ideals Precede Commandments Concept

The shell that encloses and perverts the notion that ideals precede commandments is the ideology that rejects Halacha as a matter of principle. This was the case with Reform Judaism, which abandoned traditional halachic observance “for the sake of Torah ideals.” This serves as a reminder that both—ideals and commandments—are critical to the holistic practice of Judaism.

B-4. Individual Religious Choice: Spiritual Growth Through Responsible Decision-Making

In modern Western discourse, the individual’s inner world and capacity for independent moral choice are highly valued and find expression across disciplines—from art and sociology to medicine and politics. In contrast, Jewish religious discourse tends to emphasize laws and doctrines, often relegating personal experience and individual freedom to a secondary, subordinate role. Yet individual conscience must have its rightful place within the framework of Judaism—not only for the spiritual well-being of the individual, but also as a vital force in the ongoing development of the tradition itself.

Jewish tradition offers profound insight into the complexity of individual moral and religious choice. The interplay between Divine commandments and personal experience is woven throughout the Torah narrative. A striking example appears in Leviticus 10:19, where Aaron, grieving the loss of his sons, refuses to fulfill God’s command—conveyed through Moses—to eat the sacrificial meat, a ritual meant to be performed in a state of joy. Upon hearing Aaron’s reasoning, Moses acknowledges the validity of his response and accepts what might otherwise appear as disobedience.

A mature and evolving religious life requires freedom from an overbearing overseer. Such independence enables individuals to make their own decisions, take responsibility for the outcomes, and grow through their mistakes. Without this autonomy, genuine religious maturity cannot be attained.

The Shell of Individual Religious Choice

The absolutization of individual autonomy in choosing a religious path can lead to the erosion of the Torah’s structural framework and risk fragmenting the unity of the Jewish people. A striking example is the refusal to follow halachic procedures for religious divorce, which can result in the complex and deeply consequential issue of mamzerim—a specific category of illegitimate children under Jewish law. This underscores the need to strike a careful balance between honoring individual choice and preserving the integrity of the collective religious system—a challenge that warrants its own thoughtful and nuanced discussion.

B-5. Tolerance of Cultural and Religious Diversity: Enriching Oneself by Recognizing Others’ Values

Appreciation of cultural and religious diversity is a cornerstone of the modern Western worldview. While this pluralistic outlook is often associated with secularism, it stands in contrast to the common perception of religion as inherently exclusive. Yet, unlike Christianity and Islam, Judaism has never claimed that all nations must convert to the Jewish faith for their salvation. On the contrary, from its inception, Judaism has affirmed that each nation should recognize and serve the Almighty in its own distinctive, “non-Jewish” way—thus establishing a theological foundation for the value of tolerance.

In practice, however, Jewish tolerance has historically extended only to what is considered normative Judaism—despite persistent internal feuds—while the values of other religious systems were met with outright rejection. In the modern context, there is a growing need for a broader conception of tolerance. It is time to move beyond the traditional a priori opposition to outside worldviews and adopt a stance of understanding and mutually enriching engagement.

Rav Kook taught that tolerance should go beyond merely accepting the right of others to exist toward recognizing their intrinsic value: “Humanity is perfected by the richness of the unique character of each nation.”[36]

Any understanding captures only a limited aspect of Creation; therefore, we must broaden our perspective by drawing insights—sparks—from other viewpoints. This recognition transforms the pursuit of knowing God and His Creation into a collective human endeavor, one that embraces the contributions of diverse cultures and religious traditions. In the words of Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, “We need not only a theology of commonality—of the universals of mankind—but also a theology of difference: why it exists, why it matters, why it is constitutive of our humanity, why it represents the will of God.”[37]

Recognizing the intrinsic values of different cultures is crucial in the Messianic Age. During the formative years of Judaism and the long exile, maintaining distance from foreign cultures was necessary for the maturation and survival of our tradition. Now that the resilience of Judaism is beyond question, and the State of Israel ensures the physical and spiritual survival of the Jewish people, it is time to engage with other cultures and draw from their best qualities without risking the loss of Jewish identity. The verse from Ezekiel’s prophecy of the dry bones, describing the messianic revival of Israel, reads, “Thus says the Lord God, ‘Come, O breath, from the four winds, and breathe into these slain, that they may live’” (Ezekiel 37:9). Our interpretation of this prophecy is that the revival of Israel must come from all corners—cultures—of the world. The Messianic Age demands a welcoming attitude toward other cultures, without which the Jewish people’s mission as a light to the nations cannot be fulfilled.[38]

Interfaith Engagement

Despite the tensions, conflicts, and wars that have marred relations between different religious groups, the move toward interfaith engagement represents a modern development in the West.

There are two levels of interreligious interaction, different in intent and impact:

The first level of interfaith engagement is the establishment of peace. This typically takes the form of official meetings among religious leaders, where each side expresses mutual respect and refrains from asserting superiority over the other, particularly by avoiding attempts to proselytize representatives of another faith. While these meetings are beneficial, their impact on the religious consciousness of the masses is limited.

At the second level, the parties aim to understand each other’s essence and discern which values of another religion are worth cultivating in their own religious system. Such meetings occur among theologians who are willing to engage in deep and constructive dialogue. These interactions can have a significant impact on public awareness.

The most significant and potentially fruitful interfaith dialogue for Judaism is with Christianity. Jewish national memory rightly preserves the painful history of physical and spiritual persecution endured across the Christian world. This memory is vital and must be upheld. Yet, it is equally important to acknowledge that Christianity served as the vehicle through which the Hebrew Bible was introduced to the broader world—a fact that forms the basis for meaningful dialogue.

In recent decades, much of Christian theology has moved beyond the doctrine of Supersessionism—the belief that the Church replaced Israel in God’s covenant—by acknowledging the enduring covenant between God and the Jewish people and rejecting the practice of proselytizing Jews. Moreover, a substantial number of devout Christians today actively support the Jewish people and the State of Israel and express a sincere interest in engaging with Judaism.

Since the Second Vatican Council’s Declaration on the Relationship of the Church with Non-Christian Religions (1965), and continuing to the present day, the first stage of Judeo-Christian reconciliation has, in many respects, been successfully achieved. The time has come to advance to the next stage—one that requires sustained and collaborative effort on both sides. As previously noted, the Tanakh, our shared scriptural foundation, offers a robust platform for deepening this engagement. Such a dialogue not only fosters healing and a broader appreciation of Torah values on the global stage but also enriches Judaism itself by expanding the arena in which it grows and evolves.

Judaism and Islam share numerous points of theological and cultural affinity that, in principle, make interfaith dialogue between them a promising avenue for constructive and mutual enrichment. Yet the bitter conflict between Israel and much of the Islamic world—in which religion is a main driver—continues to hinder meaningful engagement grounded in goodwill.

The dialogue between Judaism and Eastern religions holds the potential to advance to a more substantive level, as it is unburdened by a history of conflict. A possible point of departure for such engagement lies in the biblical account of Abraham sending the sons of Keturah to “the land of the East” with enigmatic gifts (Genesis 25:6)—a narrative that invites reflection on early spiritual connections between traditions. A notable example of this kind of dialogue took place in 1990, when nine Jewish delegates—including at least three Orthodox rabbis and scholars—traveled to Dharamsala, India, to engage in conversation with the Dalai Lama.[39]

Bridging the theological divide between monotheism and the karmic frameworks of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism requires specialized knowledge and sustained patience.[40]

The Shell of Tolerance

The Divine spark of tolerance is continually at risk of being obscured by the shell of cultural relativism. This worldview, which treats all cultures as equally valid and virtuous, fails to discern the moral failings and dangers inherent in certain ideologies. Uncritical tolerance—the indiscriminate acceptance of ideas from other cultures—becomes particularly problematic when elevated to the status of an ideological absolute. In this form, it aligns with postmodern philosophy, which seeks to dissolve all boundaries, norms, and definitions.

Acknowledging that other religious or cultural traditions may contain Divine elements—some of which may be underdeveloped in contemporary Judaism—should not diminish the integrity of Jewish values or compromise the Jewish people’s unique mission within humanity.

Regrettably, in our time, the ideological fervor of the Woke movement—representing the latest manifestation of shell—and the politicization of diversity have undermined the concept itself, distorting the Divine spark of tolerance it once aimed to express. Today, diversity is more often reduced to a rhetorical gesture or the object of derision, rather than embodying a sincere commitment to its foundational ideals. In recognizing this decline, we must nevertheless take care not to discard the essential value along with its corrupted expressions.

B-6. Progress: The Journey from Creation to the Messianic Age

The concept of civilizational progress, deeply ingrained in the Western psyche, is rooted in the Tanakh’s portrayal of the human journey as a trajectory from Creation to the Messianic Age. This idea of linear history, introduced by monotheism, was a profound departure from the cyclical view of history characteristic of pagan and karmic traditions. The unparalleled success of Western civilization is largely due to this “goal-oriented” sense of history, which has always been a great motivating factor for progress in all areas of human activity.

The religious significance of progress is emphasized by the Maharal and, building on his teachings, by Rav Kook, who saw global trends in human development as guided by the Creator. Rav Kook viewed progress (hishtalmut) as God’s attribute—“perfection that continues to grow,”[41]—which must therefore be embraced as a religious value and realized in our lives at both individual and societal levels, encompassing the advancement of civilization—progress itself.

Yet, while the concept of global progress is rooted in the foundations of Judaism, it is not adequately recognized in our religious consciousness. Religious discourse often neglects the importance of progress while idealizing the past. But rejecting progress is not only unrealistic—it is also spiritually shortsighted, as it overlooks the vital role of historical development in the ongoing dialogue between God and humanity.

Failure to recognize the religious significance of progress fosters the belief that the Jewish people have a passive role in the Messianic process, summed up in the dictum “when God decides, He will send the Mashiach.” Conversely, by fully recognizing the Divine Plan, we should promote the understanding that the coming of Mashiach results from the progress of both the entire world and the Jewish people.

The Shell of Progress

The Divine spark of human progress can become trapped in the shell of radical progressivism that rejects anything “not evolving” without consideration for tradition.

B-7. Democracy: The Responsibility of Every Citizen and the Spiritual Growth of Society

The biblical era of Jewish history is often associated with monarchy, leading to the widespread perception that the Torah endorses this form of government. However, the Tanakh not only recounts a centuries-long period of decentralized, democratic rule under the Judges, but also implies that monarchy emerged only because the people were not yet prepared for a stable democratic system. This pre-monarchical period—referred to by 16th- and 17th-century Christian political theorists as the Hebrew Republic—was viewed by them as an ideal, divinely ordained form of governance for the Israelites. The concept of the Hebrew Republic had a significant influence on the evolution of democratic thought in Europe and later in America.

In the Jewish tradition, discussions concerning the structure of government are relatively rare, largely because, in the Diaspora, the absence of direct experience in state administration rendered such discussions largely theoretical. Among the few scholars who addressed the issue, Maimonides endorsed the concept of monarchy. In contrast, Isaac Abravanel—the only medieval Jewish sage with high-level political experience—argued forcefully against monarchy, advocating instead for elective government.[42]

The very commandment to establish a state—“When you come into the land the Lord your God is giving you… and say, ‘I will set a king over me like all the nations that are around me’” (Deuteronomy 17:14)—could be interpreted as an instruction to adopt a successful form of government from other nations. In our day, that form is democracy. In earlier epochs, when humanity’s spiritual development was limited, democracies tended to function poorly, leading to a preference for monarchies as the default form of government. Nowadays, with a generally higher level of spiritual development among nations, democracies significantly outperform authoritarian systems in all facets of life.

Democracy’s religious value lies in its unparalleled ability to expand each citizen’s opportunities and responsibilities in shaping the destiny of their country and the world. Specifically, responsible decision-making (both at the individual and national levels) is the primary tool for maturation and spiritual growth, bringing one closer to God.

Advancing democracy requires a deeper level of engagement and study than is currently undertaken within the religious world.

The Shell of Democracy

The Divine spark of democracy must be discerned from the shell of its absolutization—the conviction that democracy is the only acceptable form of government. This belief leads to fruitless attempts to impose democracy on nations unprepared for it.

Also detrimental is the absolutizing of the current form of democracy—a refusal to even discuss its improvement, overlooking that democracy itself has evolved in the past and will continue to change.

B-8. Inalienable Rights: Reflecting the Divine Image in Every Individual

The concept of inalienable rights—fundamental human rights that cannot be revoked or infringed upon by society—has existed since ancient times, gained broader acceptance during the Enlightenment, and now holds a central place in the Western ethos. The United States Declaration of Independence, adopted in 1776, is anchored in the idea of “unalienable rights endowed by the Creator,” proclaimed at the very beginning of this foundational document. The State of Israel’s Declaration of Independence in 1948, while not using the phrase “unalienable rights,” clearly emphasizes equality, freedom, and justice for all citizens as fundamental values of the new state.

The Torah’s proclamation that man is created in the image of God has profoundly influenced the development of human rights in the West. Individual rights have always been important to the Jewish religious tradition. Judaism emphasizes the inviolability of the individual, private property, and protection from unjust judgment.

Freedom of speech deserves special mention. The Torah does not explicitly state freedom of speech as a commandment or entitlement; rather, the sacred text invites us to infer the inalienability of this right from its narrative.

In the Jewish tradition, the essence of the human being is defined as medaber, “the speaking one”, a Divine quality, as the Almighty created the world through speech. Thus, seen through the lens of Torah and tradition, denying freedom of speech is a form of oppression akin to restricting freedom of movement.

In Kabbalah and Hasidism, the Exodus from Egypt is also understood as geulat ha-dibur (liberation of speech)—both Divine and human. Slaves are metaphorically mute, and the Israelites gained the “freedom to speak” alongside their physical liberation. The very name Pesach could be interpreted as peh-sach, “a mouth that speaks,” highlighting the central role of retelling the story of the Exodus at the Seder. Within this framework, speech is not merely a tool for expressing opinions but the means to shape a national narrative and, ultimately, the nation itself.[43]

Human rights, at their core, protect the individual from the tyranny of the state. While Judaism affirms this principle, there are no religious organizations in Israel that actively advocate for such protection while operating independently of political partisanship. As a result, human rights are not commonly associated with Judaism in the public consciousness. Establishing genuinely religious human rights organizations is essential, but doing so first requires recognizing individual freedoms as a religious value. In this context, the challenge is to overcome the statism—or quasi-theological reverence for the state—to which Religious Zionism is often prone, viewing the state as “the throne of the Almighty on earth.” (Rav Soloveitchik envisioned and warned against this excessive adoration at the time of the state’s establishment.) In some cases, such statism prevents Religious Zionists from employing strong yet legal methods to oppose state policies they deem harmful. Opposing government policy is not synonymous with opposing the state itself.

Reviving the theme of inalienable rights within a religious framework would enrich Judaism and deepen our understanding of this universal value.

The Shell of Inalienable Rights

The ideology of welfarism and entitlement culture creates a shell that traps the Divine spark of inalienable rights by overstretching them to include important, yet not birthright privileges, such as work, healthcare, and housing. This distorts the balance between rights and responsibilities, and ultimately undermines both.

Also, the spark of inalienable rights is exploited by the shells of a “dictatorship of minorities,” which cloaks its political aims as human rights to suppress critique.

B-9. Universalism: Appeal to Humanity from the Land of Israel

Every profound school of thought, no matter how particular, contains elements of universality that enable it to resonate beyond its boundaries. Few systems in history have been as impactful in this regard as Judaism, which introduced ethical monotheism to the world. Yet Judaism is often perceived as a strictly national religion, concerned solely with the Jewish people and disengaged from meaningful interaction with the broader world. While this perception holds some truth, it reflects the form of Judaism that has predominated for nearly two thousand years—Judaism of the Exile, an inward-looking expression of faith shaped by historical necessity. But it was not always this way, and it need not remain so in the future.

The Tanakh and the Talmud offer contrasting worldviews regarding the universal role of the Jewish people. In the Tanakh, Israel is a nation living in its own land, much like other nations. But unlike other nations, the Jewish people of the Tanakh have the mission to spread the notion of One God and the ideals of the Torah throughout the world. Conversely, the Talmud sees the Jewish people as a dispersed minority among the hostile nations, prioritizing preservation through separateness over its universal mission. In Galut, the spirit of the Tanakh was overshadowed by the worldview of the Talmud. With the return of the Jewish people to the Land of Israel, the Tanakh reclaims its role, and Judaism is called to unveil its universal light to appeal to all humankind. This moment calls for Judaism to rediscover its universalist treasures and reawaken its global mission—a vision captured in the idea of Universal Religious Zionism.

Two significant trends are contributing to a renewed orientation of Judaism toward universalism. The Noahide movement enables non-Jews, under Jewish guidance, to embrace the Hebrew Bible ideals without undergoing conversion. In teaching Torah to Noahides—who are not obligated by Halacha—and to any genuinely interested non-Jews, Jewish educators are compelled to highlight the universal dimensions and values inherent in the tradition. Similarly, the deepening of interfaith dialogue with Christianity (see section B-5) fosters a heightened awareness within Judaism of its global mission and encourages the articulation of its universal principles.[44]

The Shell of Universalism

The shell of universalism is embodied in a range of homogenizing ideologies—what we may refer to as radical cosmopolitanism or assimilationist universalism—which view cultural, national, and religious differences as the primary sources of conflict and assert that peace requires their minimization or elimination.

This shell reveals the paradox at the heart of meaningful universalism: it does not arise from uniformity but from the coming together of distinct and rooted identities, each offering something irreplaceable to a broader universal vision.[45] Such was the path ordained by the Creator for Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. God promised each Forefather that He would make his descendants into a distinct nation so that all the families and nations may be blessed through them (Genesis 12:3, 18:18, 22:18, 26:4, 28:14). In other words, integration into the universal fabric—one that truly contributes to the whole—does not require abandoning national uniqueness but rather elevating it to its highest potential.

The global marketplace of cultures values what is distinctive and original. In the Biblical narrative, Saul is a “normal” king whose mission is to normalize the lives of the Jewish people in response to their demand for a king “like all other nations.” As important as Saul was to the Jewish nation, this “normal” king is not particularly interesting to humanity; his spiritual influence on the development of world civilization is limited. In contrast, David and Solomon were uniquely Jewish kings, the likes of which are hard to find among the nations. David, the author of the Psalms, is the most popular poet in human history. Solomon is recognized in Western tradition as the wisest of men, a reputation reflected in his universally revered works, Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs. It is precisely their national uniqueness that has made the spiritual legacy of David and Solomon invaluable to humanity.

Moreover, as Natan Sharansky argues, only those rooted in a particular national or religious identity can truly defend universal values such as democracy and freedom: “Without a strength of purpose and [religious or national] identity, the free world will not long be able to repel the assault against it.”[46] Sharansky was unique among Soviet dissidents for fighting with equal commitment for both the right of Soviet Jews to make aliyah and for anti-totalitarian reforms in the USSR, embodying a harmony between the particular and the universal. This conviction enabled the Prisoner of Zion to endure physically and spiritually during the nine years in the Gulag.

At the same time, if cosmopolitanism is a “soft” shell of universalism, its “hard” shell, totalitarianism, creates far more dangerous ideologies. In Rabbi Jonathan Sacks’s formulation: “…universalism… [can] lead to the belief—superficially compelling but quite false—that there is only one truth about the essentials of human conditions, and it holds true for all people at all times. If I am right, you are wrong. If what I believe is the truth, then your belief, which differs from mine, must be an error from which you must be converted, cured and saved. From this flowed some of the great crimes of history, some under religious auspices, others—the French and Russian revolutions, for example—under the banner of secular philosophies…”[47]

If the loss of countless millions of lives under totalitarian regimes was not enough to crack this shell, it is hard to imagine what could be.

[1] People who are passionate about certain values will assert their undisputed status, while others may challenge them. Let every value find its champion.

[2] While recognizing that science and technology are distinct fields, we have grouped them here for brevity. In future studies, science and technology will be addressed separately. The same applies to the pairs art and aesthetics, as well as game and humor.

[3] Shmonah Kevatzim, 1:118, among others.

[4] Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat, 114a.

[5] The meaning of the oft-quoted line “beauty will save the world,” from Dostoevsky’s The Idiot, is frequently misunderstood. It does not refer to aesthetics, but to moral and spiritual beauty. Indeed, it is this form of beauty—rooted in human virtue—that may truly have the power to save the world.

[6] Baal teshuva (literally “master of repentance” or “return”) refers to a Jew who, having been raised non-observant, adopts a religiously observant lifestyle, typically within the framework of Orthodox Judaism.

[7] Shmonah Kvatzim, 4:68.

[8] From the teachings of Nachman of Breslov, Likutei Moharan, 64.

[9] The two worldviews are exemplified by the disagreement between Rabbi Akiva and Rabbi Yishmael regarding the nature of the response of the Bnai Israel to the Ten Commandments (Mekhilta DeRabbi Yishmael on Exodus 20:1). They are elaborated upon by many luminaries, including Rav Joseph Soloveichik (Chumash Mesoras HaRav, Sefer Shemos. OU Press, 2014, pp. 438-439) and Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson (Chasidic Perspectives, A Festival Anthology. Kehot Publication Society, 2002, pp. 273-285).

[10] Rabbi Joseph Ber Soloveitchik recognized the importance of a well-rounded education from an early stage of personal development. In 1937, he founded the Maimonides School in Boston, which combined rigorous Orthodox Jewish learning with a broad general education. That same year, Rabbi Joseph H. Lookstein established the Ramaz School in Manhattan with a similar vision. Both institutions continue to thrive generations later, testifying to the enduring relevance of their educational philosophy. A contemporary expression of this value is the newly established Emet Classical Academy in Manhattan, a Jewish preparatory school dedicated to excellence in academic and cultural fields while promoting Jewish, Zionist, and American exceptionalism. This commitment is especially commendable at a time when all three values are increasingly under attack.

[11] For the full quote and the context of Rav Kook’s elaboration on sports, see Sport, the Maccabiah and Religious Approaches by Yossi Aron at https://www.australianjewishnews.com/sport-the-maccabiah-and-religious-approaches/.

[12] “Before Rabba began teaching halakha to the Sages, he would say some humorous comment, and the Sages would be cheered” (Pesachim, 117a). (This Talmudic reference was brought by Rabbi Mendy Uminer, himself a brilliant example of how humor can elevate teaching and dialogue.) But like any topic in Talmud, there are opposing opinions on whether humor has a place in study hall or even in life itself: Rabbi Zera (Berachos, 31a) and Rabbi Yehuda HaNasi (Nedarim, 50b) were not in favor of humor, to put it mildly.

[13] Zohar, Introduction, 2b.

[14] Babylonian Talmud, Shabbos, 30b.

[15] Babylonian Talmud, Avodah Zorah, 18b.

[16] Babylonian Talmud, Eruvim, 65b.

[17] Sacks, Jonathan. The Dignity of Difference. Continuum, 2002, p. 95.

[18] Midrash Ecclesiastes Rabbah, 7:13.

[19] Sacks, Jonathan. The Dignity of Difference. Continuum, 2002, p. 167.

[20] The Torah-based authenticity of the universal values to be revived within Judaism—and their purity from “foreign influences”—is established from the outset of Universal Religious Zionism. However, it is worth restating here, since the Western work ethic, unlike other values, is linked to another religion—Protestantism. The paradox is that none of the Reformation theologians sought to create the “spirit of capitalism”; rather, it emerged as an unintended popular reaction to Calvin’s concept of “predetermined eternal damnation of souls”—a notion to which Judaism is inherently immune.

[21] Avot de-Rabbi Natan, 11.

[22] Pirkei de-Rabbi Eliezer, 12.

[23] Avot de-Rabbi Natan, 11.

[24] Midrash Tanaim, 5:14.

[25] Mekhilta DeRabbi Shimon Ben Yochai, 20:9.

[26] Avot de-Rabbi Natan, 11.

[27] Babylonian Talmud, Nedarim, 49b.

[28] Perkei Avot, 2:2.

[29] Mishneh Torah, Laws of Hiring and Leasing, 13:7.

[30] The fact that the first question an American typically asks upon meeting someone is “What do you do?” reflects this cultural idolization of work as identity.

[31] Given the prominence of feminism as a central topic of debate, we are not reiterating well-established positions that have shaped this discourse; hence, the brevity of this section is inversely proportional to its significance. Instead, a forthcoming systematization of sources and approaches will build upon these discussions, advancing the development of the Universal Religious Zionism project.

[32] A Vision of Vegetarianism and Peace, translation by Michael Derfler.

[33] This theme is elaborated in greater detail in the article by Polonsky, Pinchas; Zolotusky, Galina; Yashgur, Gregory; BenLevi, Raphael, The Relationship Between Ideals and Commandments in Judaism. Institute for Jewish Ideas and Ideals, Issue 31, 2018. https://www.jewishideas.org/article/relationship-between-ideals-and-commandments-judaism.

[34] Lamm, Norman. Torah Umadda. Maggid Books, 2010, p. 8.

[35] Mark B. Shapiro observes: “While Soloveitchik wrote of ‘Halakhic Man’, whose ethos revolved entirely around the halakha and its study, we can contrast this figure with Rav Kook, who despite his unquestionable greatness in halakhic learning, can in many ways be seen as ‘Aggadic Man’, if we understand aggadah as encompassing the non-halakhic wisdom and spirituality of the Sages.” (Shapiro, B. Mark. Renewing the Old, Sanctifying the New. The Unique Vision of Rav Kook, The Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2025, p. 11.)

[36] Shmonah Kvatzim, 1:808.

[37] Sacks, Jonathan. The Dignity of Difference. Continuum, 2002, p. 21.

[38] Let us emphasize again that using experiences from other cultures and religions is permissible only within halachic norms.

[39] This engagement is described by its participant, Roger Kamenetz, in his book The Jew in the Lotus. The book’s subtitle, A poet’s rediscovery of Jewish identity in Buddhist India, speaks for itself.

[40] As mentioned in Chapter II, 3.4, prioritizing the integration of sparks from Western cultures is more constructive.

[41] Shmonah Kvatzim, 4:68. The philosophical challenge of reconciling God’s absolute completeness, which precludes any lack, with the capacity for progress, whose presence and absence paradoxically imply incompleteness, lies beyond the scope of this book.

[42] Abarbanel, Commentary on Torah, Deuteronomy 17:14.

[43] Soloveitchik, Joseph. Divrei Hagut, p. 258.

[44] A notable example of this effort is Israel365, an Orthodox organization whose mission is to build bridges between Jews and Christians, in part by teaching the Hebrew Bible to those who share its values.

[45] This analysis of the “paradox of universalism” exemplifies the core method of Universal Religious Zionism: extracting the Divine spark embedded within a civilizational value by cracking the ideological shell that encases it.

[46] Sharansky, Natan; Wolosky Weiss, Shira. Defending Identity: Its Indispensable Role in Protecting Democracy. Public Affairs, 2008, p. 3.

[47] Sacks, Jonathan. The Dignity of Difference. Continuum, 2002, p. 50.