Bible Dynamics
Evolving Personalities and Ideas
Contemporary Torah Commentary
Following the Teaching of Rabbi Yehuda Leon Ashkenazi (Manitou) and Rabbi Ouri Cherki
Translated from the Russian
by Betzalel (Todd) Shandelman
© Copyright 2020 Orot Yerushalaim / P. Polonsky •
© English translation of the Torah by the Jewish Publication Society, New JPS Translation, 1985. With sincere gratitude for the permission to use
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In memory of Ilia Salita (1967-2020) the president of Genesis Philanthropy Group and the passionate Jewish leader whose life was dedicated to strengthening bonds between Israel and the Diaspora
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We are very grateful to Mikhail Fridman for support in translation of the "Bible Dynamics" commentary into EnglishThe preface, explaining the particular features and objectives of the Bible Dynamics commentary, can be found in the beginning of volume 1-a.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My very special expression of gratitude goes first to Rabbi Ouri Cherki, one of modern Israel's most outstanding rabbis and religious philosophers, a disciple of Rabbi Z. Y. Kook and Rabbi Y. L. Ashkenazi (Manitou). The lessons of Rabbi Cherki allowed me to explore the uniquely innovative approach to the Torah on which the Bible Dynamics commentary is based.
Next, I wish to thank everyone who helped in creating this book at all its various stages, and especially Mikhail Fridman, without whose support this English translation could never have come to fruition, and Betzalel (Todd) Shandelman, the translator of the book, for his wonderful work, as well as Jonathan Besso-Cowan for attentive and thoughtful proofreading.
I have been privileged to benefit from the invaluable advice and support of all the following individuals: Leonid and Irina Margulis, Alexander and Yulia Shlyankevich, Svetlana Rousakovski, Masha Yaglom, Yuri Livshets, Grigory Yashgur, Galina Zolotusky, Michael Sherman and Yulia Yaglom, Boris and Anna Gulko, Michael Leypounskiy, Olga Emdin, Rivka Rosin, Galina Bleikh, Iris Mersel, Ilya Brodsky, Roman Rytov, Anatoly Gurevich, Marat Ressin.
My heartfelt thanks are also due to all those who participated with me in my work on the original Russian edition of this book.
Pinchas Polonsky
Chapter 1. Moses as a Personality and the Dynamics of His Development
1.1. The Development of the Patriarchs as a Dynamic Process
Moses, as a personality, occupies a very prominent place in the Torah. He was the greatest of all prophets: Jewish tradition makes clear that no other prophet but Moses spoke to God “face to face” (Num. 12:8, Deut. 34:10). It was through him that the Torah, the Five Books of Moses, was given, which then became the foundation of Western civilization.
Nonetheless, this greatest of all prophets was a human being, which means that, like the rest of us, he made mistakes, and as a personality he had to tread his own individual path. This path is immensely important – in fact, the Torah’s story unfolds around it. Therefore, we will preface our commentary to the book of Exodus with an overview of Moses’ personal path of development.
As already mentioned in our introduction to the Book of Genesis, the approach we follow in this commentary tries to understand the Patriarchs within the context of their own personal development. The classical commentaries on the Torah have almost never pursued this course. But our approach is based on the teachings of Rabbi I. L. Ashkenazi (known as Manitou) [1], one of the outstanding Kabbalists of the twentieth century. A scion of one of the students of Rabbi Isaac Luria [2], he received this approach to understanding the Torah as a part of the family tradition that was transmitted generation to generation over the centuries – “secrets of the Kabbalah.” However, these traditions have heretofore never been published, as it was believed that the Jewish people were not yet ready to receive them. Our own generation, however, in the opinion of Manitou, is qualified to receive this approach and acknowledge it as true.
1.2. The Contradictions in Moses’ Personality
We cannot but notice a number of strange moments in Moses’ life story.
The first of those is Moses’ attempts to evade God's order to lead the Jews out of Egypt, as first seen in the episode of the Burning Bush (Сh. 4 [3]). Moses rejects the assignment five times, citing a different reason each time. In the end, Moses runs out of arguments, and he asks God simply to release him from the task (4:13). “Please, O Lord, make someone else Your agent” (literally, “Please, O Lord, just send whomever else You might send”). At that point the Almighty grows angry with Moses, and stops just short of using physical force to get Moses to accept the mission.
Such repeated refusals cannot be explained by Moses’ humility alone, even if Moses was indeed “more humble than any other man on earth” (Num. 12:3). One might refuse once or twice because of humility, but not five times. Nor can it be explained by any lack of resoluteness on Moses’ part, insufficient self-confidence, or the like. On the contrary, we often see that Moses is prepared, with no hesitation whatsoever, to undertake weighty, highly responsible decisions.
Let us cite a number of examples. Upon seeing an Egyptian beating a Jew, Moses kills the Egyptian forthwith (2:11). Then, the very next day, he notices an altercation between two Jews, and immediately intervenes (2:13). Soon after that, Moses escapes from Egypt to a foreign country. There, he comes to the rescue of a group of girls being abused by shepherds at the well where they have come to water their sheep (2:17).
Here we have three different situations of conflict: first, between a non-Jew and a Jew, then between two Jews, and, finally, between non-Jews. But in all of those and without hesitation, Moses intervenes, doing his best to restore justice. Later we will see that Moses does not hesitate even to make critical decisions that involve actual violence – for example, when he orders the execution of all Jews who had worshipped the golden calf [4] (32:27).
It is also obvious that Moses is not suffering from low self-esteem. He is fully aware of his royal status, and it is hard to imagine that he is simply too bashful or diffident to assume the monumental leadership role that God wishes to entrust to him.
It is therefore unclear why, at first, Moses is unwilling to accept the assignment, refusing so adamantly and repeatedly that God’s anger is finally provoked.
The next oddity in the life story of Moses is the circumcision incident. Moses had not circumcised his infant son, and God wanted to punish him for this (4:24-26). Having just obtained Moses’ consent to lead the Jews out of Egypt, God suddenly wants to kill him at the inn.
What is the point of all this? And why did Moses, leader of the Jewish nation, fail to circumcise his son in the first place? Or was there perhaps no particular reason, and it was simply an innocent mistake on Moses’ part, in believing that circumcision was not obligatory [5] for a newborn while on the road? Why, then, does God want to kill Moses for this seemingly minor, unwitting oversight?
The third oddity we encounter is in God’s dialogue with Moses on Mount Sinai after the Jews had worshipped the golden calf. In this conversation, God proposes to annihilate the Jews and create an entirely new nation from Moses himself. But Moses rejects that proposal, imploring God: “Remember Your servants, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, how You swore to them by Your Self and said to them: I will make your offspring as numerous as the stars of heaven, and I will give to your offspring this whole land of which I spoke, to possess forever” (32:13).
God agrees with Moses, accepts his arguments, and forgives the people. But it is no less important to note that God’s proposal is itself not clear. If God were to destroy all the Jews except Moses and then to create a new nation from him, why should we expect that the new nation will be any better than the one that already exists? To explain what Moses means by saying to God, “Remember Your servants, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob,” the Midrash [6] comments: “If a table of three legs (Abraham, Isaac and Jacob) is unable to stand, how will a table of only one leg (Moses) possibly stand?” That is, there is no reason to believe that a nation produced from Moses alone will be more worthy than the nation that descended from Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Why, then, does God even suggest it?
We now come to the fourth and most perplexing moment in Moses’ story. Why was Moses not allowed to enter the Land of Israel? A straightforward reading of the Torah text would seem to indicate that the reason was Moses’ disobedience. In the Book of Numbers (20:7-12) we read:
And the Lord spoke to Moses, saying, ‘You and your brother Aaron take the rod and assemble the community, and before their very eyes order the rock to yield its water. Thus you shall produce water for them from the rock and provide drink for the congregation and their beasts.’ Moses took the rod from before the Lord, as He had commanded him. Moses and Aaron assembled the congregation in front of the rock; and he said to them, ‘Listen, you rebels, shall we get water for you out of this rock?’ And Moses raised his hand and struck the rock twice with his rod. Out came copious water, and the community and their beasts drank. But the Lord said to Moses and Aaron, ‘Because you did not trust Me enough to affirm My sanctity in the sight of the Israelite people, therefore you shall not lead this congregation into the land that I have given them.’
This puzzling passage is usually understood to mean that Moses’ sin consisted in his disobeying God, by smiting the rock instead of speaking to it with an order to yield its water.
The problem here is not only that the punishment seems inordinately severe. Even more incomprehensible is how and why Moses disobeyed God at all. Why did Moses strike the rock, rather than speaking to it as he had been told? We cannot explain it by suggesting that Moses was momentarily light-minded, or insufficiently attentive to the Divine word, or the like. The greatest of the prophets could not have so casually erred in such a critically decisive matter.
1.3. A View of Moses in the Context of the Dynamics of His Development
The ideas that Manitou propounds provide us with the tools we need for understanding all these problems as a single complex of interrelated factors.
Rabbi Manitou begins by pointing out that God would not have proposed to create a new people from Moses (32:10) had that offer not coincided, in some measure at least, with Moses’ own inner desire. Surely it is impossible to entice a person with something that he finds completely unattractive. And as Rabbi Manitou explains, Moses did in fact have just such a desire earlier on. And in fact, it was precisely for that reason that Moses was averse to accepting the mission of leading the Jews out of Egypt.
Following this approach, Moses’ life story is as follows.
Moses left Pharaoh’s palace while still a youth, having a dual identity. He was both a Jew and an Egyptian. “He went out to his kinsfolk and witnessed their labors” (2:11) precisely in order to help him cope with his problem of self-identification. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Jew, Moses, who considered the Jews his brothers, and himself primarily a Jew, killed the Egyptian, although as a prince he could easily have gone up against an ordinary Egyptian overseer.
Moses wanted not only to save that particular Jew, but to arouse in the Jewish people, collectively, a sense of dignity – the understanding that it was unacceptable for them to tolerate any violence perpetrated against them.
Seeing the Jews physically and spiritually oppressed, Moses, as a potential king called upon to correct the world, takes the side of the Jews. He decides that the Egyptian overseer is a ruthless criminal, sentences him to death, and executes the sentence himself. By this action, Moses, rebelling against the Egyptian system of power, breaks from it, and kills “the Egyptian within himself.”
But “when he went out the next day, he found two Hebrews fighting; so he said to the offender, ‘Why do you strike your fellow?’ He retorted, ‘Who made you chief and ruler over us? Do you mean to kill me as you killed the Egyptian?’ Moses was frightened, and thought: Then the matter is known!” (2:13-14). And Moses flees Egypt.
We understand the words “the matter is known” as referring, of course, to the killing of the Egyptian. But the Midrash gives them a completely different meaning. Moses meant that it had now become known why the Jews were suffering in slavery. To wit: Even while unable to defend themselves, they censure a person who has come to help them. If things have come to that, thinks Moses, the Jews are hopeless. He flees Egypt, not only to escape from Pharaoh, but also to avoid having dealings with people whose behavior has greatly disappointed him.
Moses concludes that if the Jews in Egypt have so deteriorated on account of their slavery, this can only mean that the potential that they had inherited earlier from the Patriarchs is now completely lost. He therefore flees to Midian, where the descendants of Abraham from Keturah are living, and where perhaps, Moses hopes, a certain spirit of Abraham’s chosenness [7] is still preserved.
By marrying the daughter of Jethro, the priest of Midian, Moses hopes to become the father of a new chosen people. Moses comes “to Horeb, the mountain of God” (3:1), the future Mount Sinai, for he senses a Divine presence manifesting there. And that is exactly why Moses, when God calls on him to lead the Jews out of Egypt, refuses. Moses now has a different plan for creating a new chosen people, and an entire series of iterations is required until God finally persuades Moses to change his orientation.
We should note one of God’s central arguments in this dialogue with Moses: “When you have freed the people from Egypt, you shall worship God at this mountain” (3:12). That is, the Sinai covenant will indeed be concluded, but it is predicated on principles quite different from those on which the covenant of the Patriarchs was based.
1.4. Two Levels of Covenant: the “Patriarch’s Covenant” and the “Sinai Covenant”
We have already noted in our commentary on the Book of Genesis that the covenant of the Patriarchs, mentioned many times in the Torah, was a covenant of ideals, a covenant to create a people and to possess a land, a covenant of direct connection with God [8]. But this covenant included no legislation or any detailed system of commandments.
The word “Patriarch” (from pater, “father”) is itself a clear reference to family, to relations between parents and children. Family relations are built on love and understanding, not on the law. If the relationship of a husband and wife, or of parents and their children, is determined primarily by legalities, surely this is a family that has already splintered apart. While it is true that laws affect all family relationships, those laws normally remain only on the periphery of the system and not at its core. God’s relationship with the Patriarchs is thus comparable to family relations, in which legal principles exist, but do not play the primary role.
At the national level, however, social relationships are constructed differently. Love for one’s fellow human being is always very important, but the foundation of a properly functioning nation is a fair legislative system. In our dealings with family members, we expect to receive their love. But in the larger society, we mainly expect that all members of society will comply with the rules. Life at the national level necessarily includes a sound legislative system.
Moses, raised from infancy in the royal household of Pharaoh, the head of state, likewise communicates with the people in the manner of a legislator, not as a father [9]. In line with his upbringing, Moses believes that the life of the nation is governed primarily by the law. He is therefore particularly well-suited to induct the people into the Sinai covenant – the covenant of the Ten Commandments and its numerous detailed laws.
The line of the Patriarchs – Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob – is the “Divine Immanence” that makes itself felt within every human being, The Patriarchs therefore feel the Torah as an integral part of themselves; this is Jewishness at the family level. The line of Moses is the “Divine Transcendence” that is revealed to man from the outside, from Above, from Sinai. This is Judaism at the national level.
The level of the Patriarchs is critically important. But for the advancement of mankind the “chosen family” would not suffice. It was therefore necessary to create the “chosen people,” because humanity consists not only of individuals and families, but of nations too, and only a nation can correct other nations. Therefore, the meaning of the life of the Patriarchs consisted in giving birth to a nation, of which the covenant of the Patriarchs, the covenant of love, affinity, and trust, was the first stage, which then had to be supplemented with the Sinai covenant, the covenant of law and justice.
Moreover, the “covenant of the law” must not be allowed to displace the “covenant of ideals"; the Sinai covenant was meant to complement the covenant of the Patriarchs, but not replace it. While the mitzvot, the Divine commandments as expressed in the Torah, are an integral part of Judaism, it is a major misconception (albeit, unfortunately, a rather common one) to consider those commandments the central essence of Judaism. The reality is quite the opposite. The foundation of Judaism is the ideals of the Patriarchs; the Sinai commandments are only a tool for implementing those ideals.
This duality of the Jewish covenant with God can be seen in the double meaning of the commandment of circumcision. Circumcision is an important element of both the covenant of the Patriarchs and the covenant of Sinai, but its meaning in these two covenants is different. In the Sinai covenant it is just one of the 613 commandments, but in the Abrahamic covenant it is symbolic of the entire covenant as a whole.
When Moses goes to lead the Jews out of Egypt, he does so on the basis of God's promise “when you have freed the people from Egypt, you shall worship God at this mountain” (3:12). That is, he is already working within the framework of the future Sinai covenant. He therefore reasons, that just as all the Jews in Egypt (those who have not been circumcised from infancy) will have to be circumcised before the Exodus [10], so will his own children be circumcised at the same time, along with everyone else. It makes no sense to Moses for his son to be entered at this time into the covenant of Abraham, which, to his thinking, has now already lost its relevance. By underestimating the enduring relevance of the covenant of the Patriarchs, Moses came very close to being the cause of his own death.
After God goes to considerable lengths to persuade him, Moses agrees to lead the Jews out of Egypt. That is, he assumes the leadership of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob’s physical heritage, but he has not yet fully accepted their spiritual heritage, nor does he identify with their “covenant of ideals.” Because he believes that the essence of God’s covenant can be reduced to the Law, it is precisely for this mistake that God “sought to kill him.” But, more precisely, not to kill, but only to show him that the covenant of the Patriarchs still retained its relevancy and remained in force, and that without that covenant, Moses’ mission would be devoid of meaning.
Moses marriage to a Midianite woman, a descendant of Abraham, expresses the connection he feels to Abraham’s special status, his chosenness. However, this does not imply for Moses any essential connection with the covenant of the Patriarchs. Zipporah, by circumcising their child, is able to rectify the situation and redirect Moses’ orientation [11].
Thus, in the story of the Burning Bush, Moses abandons his plan to create a new people from himself, and in the circumcision incident he acknowledges the importance of Abraham’s covenant. But all this happens under duress, which means that Moses’ assent to God’s requirements is still incomplete.
Moses must thus undergo yet another stage of development, in order to correct and surmount, through his own efforts, his prior, erroneous attitudes. This will happen on Mount Sinai, when Moses’ previously rejected plan to become the progenitor of a new nation will again seem plausible, because God Himself will propose it to Moses. When Moses on Mount Sinai refuses to create a new nation from himself, he refuses by his own free will, which becomes the most important step for Moses’ further development.
Generally speaking, God's relations with the heroes and greatest personalities of the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible), the Patriarchs and the prophets, are very often constructed according to this scheme. Over an initial, lengthy period, God works to move a person from his current position toward a different, more correct one. Then, when the change finally takes place, God will suddenly relieve the person of all previous pressure, with all possible paths now lying open before him, allowing him to exercise his own free choice. At just that moment, when a person is again free to choose and by his own free will and not by coercion he chooses the better position, his true spiritual growth then takes place.
As we noted in our commentary to the book of Genesis, this is also how God's relationship with Abraham develops in the matter of choosing an heir. God eliminates each of Abraham’s potential heirs in turn – first his Haran disciples, and then Eliezer, Lot, and Ishmael – which means that Abraham must now turn all his attentions to Isaac. But when Abraham finally agrees to make Isaac his heir, God suddenly (through the story of the Akedah) orders Abraham to sacrifice Isaac on the altar, and the matter of Abraham’s heir becomes again an open question. Only after Abraham himself designates Isaac as his heir does the connection between them become complete [12].
Here, too, we see something similar happen with Moses. First, God exhorts Moses to not create a new people, but to bring out from Egypt the nation that already exists. He explains that the Sinai covenant can come to pass only on the basis of the Abrahamic covenant. But then, in the incident of the golden calf, again God suddenly gives Moses the opportunity to choose. For indeed, if we view the Jews who created the golden calf from the perspective of the “covenant of the commandments,” the Jews have violated the covenant and have thus forfeited their chosenness. Perhaps, then, it is worthwhile to return to Moses’ original plan to create a new nation from himself? When Moses refuses this option by his own choice, he passes his most important test and rises to a new level of personal development.
The issue being decided here is this: What is more important – the national aspect (to create a nation specifically from the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob) or the religious aspect (to create a nation from people who observe the laws of the Torah)? The Sinai covenant would seem to give preference to the religious aspect, the observance of the commandments, while the line of the Patriarchs is clearly ethnic, with kindred relations playing the main role – father and son retain their inner connection irrespective of religious prescriptions.
When Moses, the leading supporter and promoter of the “covenant of the commandments” supports an ethnic, nationally oriented line, he thereby acknowledges that the national aspect takes precedence over the religious. If Divine revelation is to be received, there must first be a people prepared to receive it. Therefore, the people come first, and the Torah second.
The nation, the family, and parental ties all represent something incomparably deeper than the observance of the law, even if it is the Divine Law. A nation must exist before the Torah can be realized, and not vice versa. The essence of Israel as a nation inheres in this principle, which states that “the national aspect takes precedence over the religious,” that the Jewish people remain the Chosen People, even when individual Jews violate the covenant, and that the Divine light enters the world primarily through the Jewish people. Without all the aforementioned, the Jewish people could not bring Divine light to humanity.
The Midrash further emphasizes the paramount importance of Abraham’s covenant by offering us the following image. The angels, upon seeing Moses ascending Mount Sinai to receive the Torah, were indignant. “Who is this person to receive the Torah? What has he done to deserve it?” God then made Moses’ face identical in its appearance to the face of Abraham. And he told the angels: “Have you not eaten dinner with him recently?” (referring to the story of Abraham’s hospitality to the angels, Gen. 18:8). Only then did the angels assent.
The meaning of this Midrash is that the Torah from Sinai cannot come into the world if it does not have the covenant of the Patriarchs as its foundation. The idea that “God made Moses’ face identical in its appearance to the face of Abraham” means that Moses is heir to the Patriarchs, and that the Sinai covenant is only the continuation, an implementation detail, of the Abrahamic covenant. Only after that condition is fulfilled, will the angels (i.e. the universe) then agree to the giving of the legislative component of the Torah. In other words, the ideals promulgated by the Patriarchs occupy the central position in Judaism, while the Torah’s commandments and laws are only secondary to them.
Ideals are the central value, and only for their sake God gives the Torah to humankind and communicates with them. The commandments are only auxiliaries to those ideals, because the ideals cannot be realized unless the commandments are observed. But if the commandments are allowed to supersede the ideals, if the Jewish religious world, as sometimes happens, is guided first and foremost by the commandments, the effect will be a significant distortion of the Divine order of things, which only leads to a degraded form of Judaism.
1.5. Moses and Abraham in the Structure of the Sefirot
As already discussed in our commentary on Genesis, one element of correcting the Sefirot is establishing the proper interrelationships between them, so as to effect the integration of all the Sefirot into a single, unified system. This correction is carried out by the Patriarchs and other national leaders, each of whose personalities is associated with one or more of the Sefirot.
Each Sefirah is a manifestation of one of the directions of Divine control in the world. The function of each Sefirah is therefore positive, for it transmits Divine light to the world. But when a given Sefirah has no connection with the other Sefirot, which means that the given Sefirah makes itself absolute, feeling itself autonomous and regarding itself as primary, the destructive state of olam nekudim, a “world of [isolated] points” then arises. This leads to shevirat keilim, the “shattering of the vessels.” At that point, a process of tikkun, “correction, repair,” becomes necessary. In the course of that correction, the Sefirot cement their interrelationships, thus becoming a single, unified system.
In the system of the Sefirot, Moses as a personality corresponds to Netzach (“Victory, Eternity”). This extends Chesed (“Mercy”) – Abraham’s Sefirah – albeit at a more practical level of implementation. (In the Kabbalah, the more pragmatic and realizable attributes are said to be “lower.” However, this does not mean that those attributes are more primitive, but only that they are closer to realization.)
Chesed (“Mercy”) means striving to show mercy, a desire to bestow kindness on others [13]. Netzach, “Victory, Eternity” is the “pragmatization” of Chesed, the ability to demonstrate mercy in real life. Thus, Abraham promotes the ideas of the Divine teachings by offering them to others, while Moses passes those teachings to the Jewish people, sometimes even imposing them by force [14]. Although the direction of their aspirations coincides [15], at first, Moses did not have a sufficient connection with the Abrahamic covenant; he believed that it was possible to build the life of the nation on the basis of commandments and duties (Netzach) alone, but not ideals (Chesed). In order to advance the Divine idea in the world, this connection must be restored. Netzach can function correctly only when it realizes itself as a promoter of Chesed. For Moses, this connection between Netzach and Chesed is restored in the incident of his son’s circumcision at the inn, at night on the road to Egypt. And it is confirmed in its final form at Mount Sinai [16].
The difference between Abraham and Moses is also evident in their names. Abraham is the personification of majesty. His original name “Abram,” means av ram, “the exalted father.” Later he receives the name “Abraham,” which means “the father of a multitude of nations” (Gen. 17:5). Thus, Abraham’s names testify to his essential greatness.
But the Torah calls Moses ben Amram, “the son of Amram” (6:20) (his father’s name was “Amram”), but it can also be understood as ben am ram, “the son of an exalted people.” Moses’ greatness is that of a son, and not the greatness of a “father of the nation,” as was Abraham’s. Moses’ own greatness derives from that of the people, although he is himself unaware of this at first.
Moses’ connection with the people, at first quite weak, gradually intensifies in the course of the Exodus. As it later turns out, however, Moses is connected specifically with the generation of Jews whom he led out of Egypt, but he cannot become the leader of the new generation who grew up over the forty years of wanderings in the wilderness. For this reason, Moses cannot enter the Promised Land.
1.6. Moses’ Alienation from the “Wilderness Generation”
We now have sufficient background to solve the final problem of Moses’ life story – the reason that the Almighty would not allow him to enter the Promised Land. As already noted, the book of Numbers explains this as the consequence of Moses’ disobedience: he struck the rock, rather than speaking to it, as God had instructed him to do [17]. But if we consider that incident and its consequences within the full context of Moses’ life story, we will see that his blow to the rock was only a pretext for God’s decision. The real reason for that decision actually lies much deeper.
Moses, in the course of the Exodus, lives in close contact with the Jewish nation whom he leads out of Egypt, and this culminates in his refraining from creating from himself a new nation. However, when the situation stabilizes and the Jews journey through the wilderness for forty years, Moses lives separately from the people, apart even from his own family.
After descending from the Mount Sinai, Moses’ face is radiant, and he covers it with a veil (34:33). He removes the veil when he goes to the Tabernacle to speak “face to face” with God, and also when he teaches Torah to the Jews, so that they can learn “face to face” with him how he himself communicates with God.
But when he finishes teaching, Moses again covers his face with a veil. Thus, Moses sees the people only during their study sessions, but he does not observe them in their day-to-day lives, for his face is then concealed. During all the years of wanderings through the wilderness, Moses taught the people Torah, but he had no actual communication with the people, even at a rudimentary level. He was unfamiliar with the new generation who grew up in the wilderness and had no knowledge of their challenges and aspirations. Another crisis [18] arises in the fortieth year, when after Miriam’s death, the water supply runs dry and the people again begin to murmur, but Moses incorrectly interprets their discontent.
When Moses hears the people say, “Why did you make us leave Egypt to bring us to this wretched place, a place with no grain or figs or vines or pomegranates? There is not even water to drink!” (Num. 20:5), Moses is accustomed to thinking that the people want to return to Egypt. But in fact, the generation that grew up in the wilderness neither knows Egypt nor has any interest in returning there – on the contrary, it wants to enter the Land of Israel, having heard so much about it. Weary of their trek through the desert, they want, at last, to reach their final destination. Their description of the place where they hope to live – a place of figs, vines, and pomegranates – has nothing in common with Egypt, the land of vegetables and fish (Num. 11:5).
But Moses misunderstands the problems of the new generation and therefore improperly responds to them. When God says to Moses, “You and your brother Aaron take the rod and assemble the community, and before their very eyes order the rock to yield its water” (Num. 20:8), the meaning of this instruction is: “Take your rod and speak to the rock; you will see that it will give water. Let this be a lesson to you, that you must learn to talk with the new generation of Jews who grew up in the Wilderness. The era of coercion has now ended. Just as you must not smite the rock, you must not smite the people.”
When the nation consisted of slaves who just had left Egypt, they had to be “beaten” – not in the physical sense, but managerially speaking. Giving orders to the Jews at that time was proper and necessary. They responded appropriately by obeying. But now a new generation has grown up, having different aspirations, and with whom one needs to talk – they must be heard and understood. God therefore sends Moses to speak to the rock, as a demonstration to Moses that even a rock can respond to instructions and give water. And by virtue of that lesson, Moses was supposed to learn how to talk with the people as well.
But Moses follows the usual pattern, just as he did immediately after the Exodus (17:6). He believes that there is no need to talk, only to smite. There is no sense in trying to understand people, because their thinking is wrong in any case. You just need to state your instructions explicitly. And so, Moses smites the rock.
The people do get their water, but Moses has demonstrated that he is incapable of managing the new generation, and that he can no longer be their leader. Upon hearing nothing more than an indistinct murmur from his people, an astute leader can correctly assess what is happening [19]. He understands the people’s problems, and does more than just give orders. Moses was just this kind of leader for the generation of the Exodus, but for the wilderness generation, who must conquer the Land, his approach is no longer adequate. And that is why God removes Moses from the helm of leadership, and not merely because he smote the rock. Moses has by now become “professionally unfit” to lead.
According to the Midrash, Moses asked God to be allowed, at very least, to enter the Land of Israel as just an ordinary citizen, and not a leader. But this too turned out to be impossible. Moses’ personality so dominated that neither Joshua nor anyone else could have led the people effectively while Moses was still alive. A new and different life requires a new style and form of leadership. Moses must therefore leave the stage.
1.7. Moses Departs, So That the History of the Jewish Nation Can Begin
The history of a nation, like that of an individual, begins from the moment it becomes an independent entity capable of making its own decisions. The giving of the Torah at Sinai and the wanderings through the wilderness were only the prehistory of the Jewish people. Their true story begins with the conquest of the Land.
The generation that Moses led out of Egypt had to be managed by directive. Their movements were determined by a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night, and Moses too gave them orders, so that they knew what to do. Even the giving of the Torah at the Sinai, according to the Midrash, happened under conditions of duress, and the Jews accepted the Torah only on that basis.
“And they took their places at the foot of the mountain” (19:17, but literally, “They stood on the underside of the mountain”). The Talmud expands on this: “Rabbi Abdimi b. Hama b. Hasa said: This teaches that the Holy One, blessed be He, overturned the mountain upon them like an inverted cask, and said to them, ‘If ye accept the Torah, ‘tis well; but if not, there shall be your burial.’ ” (Shabbat 88a) [20].
By the time the nation was about to cross the Jordan River under Joshua’s leadership, the cloud and the pillar of fire were already departing, as was Moses too, and in a sense the people were now left to fend for themselves. We could say that at this point in history the Jewish people had finally completed their course of academic study (Mount Sinai and the Wilderness), and were leaving their cloistered existence to go out into the real world for the very first time, to begin a life of self-sufficiency and independence. Jewish history begins when the nation is finally in a position to decide its own fate, to make decisions and be responsible for its actions – by solving on its own the problems that it creates.
But in order for this new era to begin, Moses had to leave the scene.
Chapter 2. The Exodus as the “Book of Revelation”
2.1. The Names of the Five Books of the Torah
We have already noted in our introduction to the book of Genesis that the European names of the books of the Torah (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) are Jewish in origin. In ancient times each book of the Torah had two names, one based on the primary theme of the book, and the other taken from the book’s opening words. The first of those (rendered first into Greek and Latin, and from them into other languages) became the norm in European culture, while the other is consistently used in Jewish terminology.
The second book of the Torah was in antiquity called Sefer Yetzi’at Mizrayim (“The Book of the Exodus from Egypt”), later translated and shortened as, simply, “Exodus.”
Leviticus, the third book of the Torah, was called Torat Ha-Kohanim (“The Law of the Priesthood”), but the European translation replaced the Priests with the Levites as the more general term, hence “Leviticus.”
The fourth book was known in antiquity as Chumash Ha-Pekudim, “the Book of the Census,” [21] which in the European tradition became “Numbers.”
The fifth book of the Torah was called Mishneh Torah, or literally, “The Repetition of the Torah", which then became “Deuteronomy,” from the Greek, meaning “Second Law.”
But the European name of the Torah’s first book strayed furthest from the original. Sefer Ha-Yesharim, “The Book of the Upright” (i.e., the Patriarchs), became known as “Genesis, from the Greek word meaning “Birth,” or “Beginning.”
Finally, we note that the five books of the Torah are commonly known in European tradition as the Pentateuch, the Greek equivalent of “five books.”
The modern Hebrew names of the books of the Torah (Bereshit, Shemot, etc.) are taken from the names of the first weekly portion of each book (the weekly portions are named after one of their first few words). To avoid confusion, in this commentary we refer to the books using their European names (Genesis, Exodus, etc.), while leaving the Hebrew equivalent terms to refer to their opening weekly portions.
2.2. The Structure of the Book of Exodus
The book of Exodus can be divided thematically into three main parts.
A) The Exodus from Egypt and the birth of the Jewish people;
B) The making of God’s Covenant;
C) The building of the Tabernacle (movable Temple) and hashra’at ha-shechinah, the resting of the Divine Presence upon the Jewish nation.
These three parts correspond to three aspects of holiness: the nation, the Covenant, and the Shechinah.
After Exodus, the next three books of the Pentateuch are further elaborations on these same three themes:
(3) Leviticus continues the theme of God’s Sacred Presence among the people of Israel. It deals with the functioning of the Temple and the commandments associated with holiness.
(4) The fourth book, Numbers, continues the theme of general Jewish history, recounting the wanderings of the Jews through the wilderness.
(5) Deuteronomy continues the theme of the Covenant between God and the Jewish people, and speaks of the realization of that covenant in the Land of Israel.
The detailed structure of the Book of Exodus (like that of the Book of Genesis) can be more clearly seen when its weekly portions are grouped in pairs:
A) The Exodus from Egypt and the birth of the Jewish nation
(1) Shemot (1:1–6:1): Preparation for the Exodus, the internal aspect (Moses);
(2) Va’era (6:2–9:35): Preparation for the Exodus, the external aspect (Aaron);
(3) Bo (10:1–13:16): The Exodus, internal aspect (Moses);
(4) Beshalach (13:17–17:16): The Exodus, external aspect (Aaron)
B) The making of the Covenant
(5) Yitro (18:1–20:26): General principles of the covenant (Moses);
(6) Mishpatim (21:1–24:18): Detailed coverage of the covenant (Aaron)
C) The Tabernacle and hashra’at ha-Shechinah, the resting of God’s Sacred Presence on the people of Israel:
(7) Terumah (25: 1–27:19): The command to build the Tabernacle (the “Moses” aspect);
(8) Tetsaveh (27:20–30:10): The command to build the Tabernacle (the “Aaron” aspect);
(9) Ki Tissa (30:11–34:35): Crisis (unpaired portion);
(10) Vayakhel (35: 1–38:20): Building the Tabernacle (the “Moses” aspect);
(11) Pekudei (38:21–40:38): Building the Tabernacle (the “Aaron” aspect);
2.3. Moses’ Torah and Aaron’s Torah
The eleven weekly portions of the book of Exodus can be grouped into pairs (except for the ninth portion, Ki Tissa, which deals with a national crisis). Thus, the theme of each such pair is considered from two different points of view. This understanding of the structure of the books of the Torah according to their weekly divisions [22] was elaborated by Rabbi Zvi Yehuda Kook.
It is well known that our division of the Torah into weekly portions originated in Babylonia. In contrast, the inhabitants of the Land of Israel, in antiquity, used a different system for dividing the Torah into weekly Shabbat readings, because they completed the reading of the Torah only twice in seven years [23], rather than once annually as we do today. The Babylonian system divided the Torah into fifty-four weekly portions, a number that approximates the number of weeks in a typical (average) Jewish year. It is the system of weekly divisions still in use today.
Although the division of the five books of the Torah into weekly portions is usually perceived as merely a technical matter, bearing no special meaning in and of itself, Rabbi Z. Y. Kook thought otherwise. He considered these divisions a part of the Babylonian Talmudic tradition and believed that ipso facto there must be a definite meaning to them.
In the Book of Exodus in particular (and later, in the Book of Leviticus as well), the pairing of the weekly portions represents the counterpoint of Moses’ and Aaron’s perspectives. These differences, especially pronounced in relation to the Tabernacle, will be covered in detail below, when we compare portions (7) Terumah, and (8) Tetsaveh. But the same contrast is also noticeable in the earlier portions of this book of Exodus.
The “Moses” portion of each pair always refers to the “inner” side of what is happening, as they describe the inner essence of things and events. In contrast, the “Aaron” portion of each pair is more oriented to externals, that is, to the manner in which those same things and events find expression in the larger world. We will see this contrast below, in the comparison of portions (1) Shemot, and (2) Va’era; in (3) Bo, and (4) Beshalach; and then in (5) Yitro, and (6) Mishpatim.
Creation and Revelation are two fundamentally Divine actions. Creation of physical world is meant to conceal God, while the purpose of Revelation is to reveal Him. Genesis is the book of Creation – the creation of the world and the foundations of the future Jewish people. The Book of Exodus is the book of Revelation – revelation in the process of the Exodus from Egypt, revelation in the giving of the Torah at Mount Sinai, and revelation through the Divine presence in the Tabernacle.
For many people, it is a simple matter to recognize Divine Creation in the world, but very difficult to recognize Revelation. Also, Revelation is more important for our religious life, because it demonstrates our personal connection with God and His direct involvement in the events happening around us. But in the act of Creation, God’s concern for man is not manifested explicitly – He creates the world and sets it in motion, but then it just “takes its course,” as it were. In the act of Revelation, however, God’s care and personal connection come to the fore. In this sense, Revelation is more significant for us than Creation. Acknowledging Revelation is thus the next level of religious attainment, after recognition of Creation.
The Midrash notes that the Torah begins with the word “Bereshit,” “In the beginning,” whose first letter is bet, the second letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The Midrash explains that alef, the first letter of the alphabet, had asked God to be the Torah’s opening letter, but God declined, promising instead that the time would come for the phrase Anochi HaShem Elohecha, “I the Lord am your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt,” to appear (20:2, the opening words of the Ten Commandments). There, alef would occupy the opening position. In other words, bet represents Creation, and alef – Revelation.
Creation must begin with bet, the second letter, because in Creation there must be not only a single tendency, but a variety of different options for understanding. Since Creation must conceal God’s presence, its realization must allow a person to choose whether he wants to feel a connection with God in his life, or to refuse that connection. This is because only when a person has free choice can he make his own decision.
But as concerns Revelation, the situation is different. Revelation is a direct connection with the Divine Essence that is being revealed with such absolute immediacy that it leaves no room whatsoever for doubt. This Unity and Oneness is expressed by alef, the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
Creation produces a world in which God is hidden. When we observe the universe or explore it solely from a scientific perspective, we cannot find meaning or purpose in it, for these cannot be inferred from objective study of the world around us. This missing element in the universe gives us Revelation, whose task is to demonstrate that there is meaning and purpose in the world.
It is no coincidence that the Book of Revelation is also called “Shemot,” which means “names.” We have already noted earlier that the Hebrew word shem, “name,” denotes not just the essence of a thing, but its objective and purpose [24]. If the book of Genesis describes the structure of the world, then the Book of Names speaks of the purpose and meaning of the universe.
2.4. Divine Revelation Happens First in Egypt, not Israel
As we read the Book of Exodus, we learn that the first nation to whom God is revealed is not the Jews, but the Egyptians! At first this seems counterintuitive, but the Torah expresses in very plain terms that the Egyptian plagues are needed so that “the Egyptians shall know that I am the Lord” (14:4). Not the Jews, but the Egyptians, shall know. God will later reveal himself to the Jewish nation on Mount Sinai, at the giving of the Torah. But the Ten Plagues is a revelation specifically for the Egyptians, and it happened before God revealed Himself to the Jews.
All of Western civilization has its roots in Ancient Egypt (by way of Greece and Rome) [25]. Thus, God’s revelation to Egypt was potentially a revelation to all mankind.
God had to reveal Himself first, at the Exodus, to all the nations, and only then could He charge the Jews at Sinai with the task of bringing God’s message to all humanity. The Jews could not have advanced the human race from its primitive, “natural” positions if God had not first set those positions in motion for all of humanity. This is just what He did through the Ten Plagues with which He smote the Egyptians.
Egyptian culture incorporates an unusually robust Divine principle, but Egypt’s worship of nature suppresses that foundation. Egypt is first mentioned in the second chapter of Genesis, where the rivers that flow forth from the Garden of Eden are enumerated (Gen. 2:13) [26]. Thus, Egypt draws its spirituality directly from the Garden of Eden, but it applies that spirituality incorrectly. Egypt is described in Torah as the “house of bondage” (Exod. 20:2), i.e. the bondage constitutes its essence. Egypt turns its inhabitants into slaves of Pharaoh and the society into slaves of nature. Egypt incorporates the Jewish people into this system. And that is why Egypt must be destroyed.
God’s Revelation in Egypt consists in destroying Egyptian self-confidence, in destroying its reliance on nature and on the cyclical aspect of nature and its determinism. With the dismantling of these attitudes, the Divine foundation of Egyptian civilization is set free, part of which the Jews must bring out of Egypt with them. This is the “stripping” of the Egyptians that accompanies the Exodus (3:22).
Unlike the book of Genesis, which tells of illustrious individuals, Exodus recounts the life of the nation as a whole. And although any individual of this nation, including even Moses himself, was of course spiritually lower than any of the Patriarchs, the essence of the Patriarchs was that they were “forefathers,” parents, whose task was to give birth to a nation. The life of the nation therefore represents a more advanced stage of development as compared with that of the Patriarchs.
Therein lies a certain paradox in the spiritual element of the historical process, as Jewish tradition sees it. The greatness of Jewish leaders steadily “decreases” (the Patriarchs were greater than Moses, who was greater than the other prophets who followed him, who were greater than the sages of the Talmud, who were greater than the sages of the post-Talmudic era). But at the same time, the spirituality of the world and of society generally is increasing. Apparently, the level of the great leaders is decreasing because most of the hard work has already been accomplished, with the leaders of each subsequent era standing on the shoulders of their predecessors. One who stands on the shoulders of giants sees further than they do, although he is himself shorter than they are [27].
Genesis is the story of individual holiness, while the book of Exodus speaks of the holiness of society, of an entire nation. God gave the Patriarchs His promise that they would give birth to a nation, because only a nation can re-educate humanity, which consists of other nations.
As the human species progresses in its development, holiness must become the lot not only of individuals, but of society as a whole. It should extend not only to specifically religious areas of life (commandments, prayer, and so on), but to social life and the life of the state, to the economy, to the development of science, technology, and art, and to the entire social structure. All aspects of “secular” life must collectively participate in acquiring holiness. Individuals cannot attain that level, not even righteous individuals can. Only a nation is capable of that.
In the book of Exodus, therefore, the first step must be the creation of a nation – the future subject of holiness. Only then can that nation receive the Torah and take up residence in its own Land, building its life on a sacred foundation.
The holiness of the nation as a whole and the holiness of secular life are fundamental biblical concepts, but the Jewish people have even now not yet managed to convey their understanding of those concepts to humanity. The world accepted monotheism from the Jews, along with the idea that God exists and has given them His commandments, all of which are aspects of personal dialogue with God.
But the world has not yet adopted the ideas of national holiness and a national dialogue with God; these remain ideas whose time is yet to come (according to the theory of religious Zionism as developed by Rabbi A. I. Kook, the peoples of the world will receive the ideas of “the sanctity of secular life” as a part of the historical, political, and spiritual development of the modern Israeli state).
2.5. Mother Egypt and Father Babylon
We have already noted [28] that the Jewish people, in its very structure and origins, is significantly different from ordinary peoples.
Among the peoples of the world there is a concept of “motherland,” which means that a country is seen as giving birth to its inhabitants, as being a parent to them. This idea is quite accurate for ordinary peoples, whose national consciousness takes form as a feature of their historical development. But it often happens that different components of a single ethnos take up residence in different geographical states, with the result that after a few centuries they become entirely different nations. And vice versa: If different clans live in the same country, and their common history progressively unites them, after a few hundred years they will become a single people (the Gauls, Franks, and Provençal in France are an example of this). In other words, nations are formed in the course of the history of states. A country really does “gives birth” to its people.
But in Jewish culture, the relationship of the nation to its state is completely different. In Jewish tradition, the Land of Israel is not the mother of the Jewish people at all, but their wife, and in the course of their history, the Jewish people will “marry” the Land of Israel. But as for their birth, the Jewish nation is born in a completely different place – in Egypt.
The history of the Jews in Egypt and their Exodus from there parallels the process of human conception and birth. When Jacob and his family leave Laban’s home in Babylon and later come to Egypt, a “conception” occurs. And when the nation grows and develops in Egypt, we can call that the “pregnancy.” When the time for the Exodus arrives, the throes of “labor” begin – the Ten Plagues that smote the Egyptians. Finally, the sea parted – “the water broke.” And the nation was born.
At the next stage of human development, the child is sent off to school to study – the Jewish people go to Mount Sinai to receive the Torah. Soon it is time to marry – the “bride” is the Land of Israel. But the Jewish people were still too young at that time – they were afraid of marriage (this does happen to young people, as we know), and were not yet ready to take on conquering the Land. The future “groom” was therefore allowed to continue his “studies” for another forty years of wanderings through the wilderness, which is plenty of time to “grow up.” Finally, he is ready for “marriage” – he enters the Land of Israel and conquers it. The “marriage” to his beloved bride (the Land of Israel) is finally consummated.
Thus, the “marriage” of the Jewish people to the Land of Israel is the creation of the Jewish state, and the “child” born to them is the Messiah, the king of the Jewish state, under whose guidance the Divine light spreads to all mankind, as the prophet Isaiah says: “For instruction shall come forth from Zion, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem” (Isa. 2:3). God’s instruction and word will then be coming forth not for the Jewish people, who have already received all of that much earlier, at Sinai, at the onset of their “studies.” Rather, Isaiah means that the Divine word will come forth for all humanity. And indeed, Divine Revelation came to the entire world (and in the future will likewise come) only from Zion; that is, from the Jewish state that has its capital in Jerusalem.
According to the Midrash, when God gave the Torah on Mount Sinai, He was prepared to teach it to all the nations, but they refused. Only the Jews agreed to accept the Torah and, as things turned out, only they were capable doing so [29]. The Torah given at Sinai is the Torah descended from Heaven. Only the Jewish people are able to “receive the Divine Word from Heaven.” But the Jewish people receive the Torah not only for themselves, but for the entire world. They arrive in the land of Israel and possess it for the purpose of transmitting the Divine Teachings to all of humanity.
In the course of Jewish history in the Land of Israel, which is the story of the “marriage” of the Jewish people to their Land, the Torah is transformed into the Tanakh, and God’s Heavenly teachings are transformed into their more earthly equivalent, something that all of humanity can understand. And then “instruction shall come forth from Zion, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem.”
Through the concept of the “marriage” of the Jewish people and their Land one can gain a unique understanding of the special nature of the connection between the Jews and the Land of Israel. A people that relocates to a different country will inevitably, after some time, forget its former “historical homeland.” French-Canadians, for example, have no interest in returning to France, notwithstanding that they have not lost their appreciation of French as a language. And so it is with any other nation.
This is similar to how a child grows up and leaves his mother – he takes leave of her. He keeps in touch with her, writes her letters, and sometimes even comes back to visit, but he lives separately and independently, and has no plan to return in any real sense.
The Jewish people, however, in leaving their country have left not their mother but their wife. Or, more precisely, when the Jewish people began to behave badly, the Land of Israel booted them out. But when the Jewish people repented and mended their ways, she willingly accepted them back [30].
All the time the Jewish people were in exile, the Land did not “marry” anyone else. For almost the entire period of the Jewish exile, the Land of Israel was merely the abandoned province of other states, not an independent entity. No other people could come into existence on that territory, and those states that did arise in the Land of Israel were ephemeral and short-lived. The return of the Jewish people to their Land today is therefore a renewal of “marriage,” in order to give birth to the Mashiach, to bring the Messianic light to the world. This is the purpose for which the current State of Israel was created. In times to come the world will begin to understand this.
Returning to the story of the birth of the Jewish people, which is the subject of our discussion in this Book of Exodus, we note that Egypt was the mother of the Jewish people, and its father was Babylon. In this sense, Jacob’s departure with his family from Babylon is the inception of the nation’s “birth” from the father’s point of view, the “insemination.” Later on, Jacob and his family move from Babylon to Egypt, and there the “conception” takes place.
Babylon and Egypt are special countries. As already noted, these two countries are mentioned in the Book of Genesis as an integral part of the Creation story. Babylon and Egypt are fed by the rivers that flow through the Garden of Eden; mankind’s primordial spirituality is divided between them.
In the Jewish view, the unification of these two spiritualities, the Egyptian and the Babylonian, gave birth to a people, the Jews, who could transmit the Divine light to all of mankind. This is why Abraham's origins are in Babylon. He descends to Egypt and later leaves Egypt, but he thus integrates both Babylon and Egypt on a personal level.
At the next stage, Jacob goes to Babylon, marries, begets children, creates a family, and with them leaves Babylon and later descends to Egypt – realizing communication not on an individual, but on a familial level [31]. The next level, the national level, is the Exodus and “birth” from Egypt.
Because the Jewish nation was born in Egypt, it has a certain kindred relation to Egypt. Egypt was the greatest civilization of antiquity, the most highly developed – spiritually, scientifically, and technically. It is therefore no coincidence that the Jewish nation is born there. It could not have been born in a weak country, or a country of only secondary importance.
Abraham was himself keenly aware of this point – that the Jewish nation had to be born under Egypt’s influence and retain its kindred relationship with Egypt. It is no coincidence that after arriving in the Land of Israel, Abraham went to Egypt. And later, even more compellingly, Abraham believed that Ishmael, his son from his Egyptian bondwoman Hagar [32], would become the heir to his life’s work. Before he could acknowledge that only Isaac would continue his mission, Abraham had to experience a severe personal crisis.
Although the idea that the Jewish nation had to be born through Egypt was incorrect at Abraham’s phase of Jewish history, it was in principle entirely correct. Abraham’s only mistake was his belief that it would happen with him; he committed only a tactical error. He failed to understand that first his son and grandson Isaac and Jacob had to be born, and that the latter would then go down to Egypt as a family unit, in order that a new nation, the Children of Israel, could be born from that civilization. Moses, the leader of the Exodus, clearly senses this connection of Jewish and Egyptian principles within his own personality. The story of weekly portion Shemot is centered around this fact.
Chapter 3. The Beginning of the Book of Exodus: The Transition from a Family to a People
3.1. Preparation for the Exodus – the Moses Aspect
The first weekly portion of Exodus is Shemot, which means “names.” As always, Jewish Tradition derives the name of the weekly portion from its opening words, which also mirrors the theme of the entire portion.
The Shemot portion recounts how the Jewish people in Egypt preserved their names, their inner character, and their purpose, and this is the underlying meaning of the portion. The opening passage lists the names of the sons of Israel (Jacob), reflecting the purpose and meaning of each tribe, in their unity and diversity. And at the end of the portion, God’s name and the meaning of that name are discussed.
The first two weekly portions of the book of Exodus – Shemot and Va’era – both tell of the preparations for leaving Egypt, but from two different angles. Contemporaneously with the preparation for the Exodus, the manifestation of Divinity changes. In the Shemot portion the Divine Name appears in the future tense (“Ehyeh,” see 3:14), while in Va’era it is in the present tense (the Tetragrammaton, “YHWH,” see 6:3).
The Shemot portion mentions the Jewish people only briefly at the beginning (in connection with their servitude) and then again only briefly toward the end (after Moses’ return to Egypt). Instead, the main content of the portion is almost entirely devoted to the personality of Moses.
As soon as Moses is born, his mother “saw how beautiful he was” (2:2) (but, literally, “she saw that he was good”). The word tov, which means “good, kind, beneficial,” is Moses’ most important quality. He so longs to see goodness in the world that he is prepared, if necessary, to exert pressure, and even to use violence, in order to make it happen.
Moses’ personal identity and his sense of self exhibit two complementary tendencies. On the one hand, their origins are in the royal Egyptian palace, but on the other hand, Moses’ roots are entirely Jewish (he was nursed in infancy by his own mother, he never broke off ties with his family, and his brother Aaron, as we will shall see later, was the spiritual leader of the Jewish community of Egypt – “the local chief rabbi,” as it were). The typical Jewish desire to intervene in every situation, coupled with the Egyptian self-image of a ruling dynasty wielding world power, together create in Moses an explosive personality that can change the world.
As we read the first three narratives of Moses’ activism, we notice that each of them speaks of some conflict – first with the Egyptian overseer, then with two Jews involved in an altercation, and finally with the Midianite shepherds. Moses is a man of impressive physical strength who, even as a stranger in a foreign country, is not afraid of a confrontation. He has a great thirst for justice, and the self-awareness of a king, who is responsible for maintaining proper order in all of the surrounding world.
For the first half of his life Moses was disengaged from the Jewish people – physically, psychologically, and spiritually. But this separation was necessary for his own personal development. Having grown up in Pharaoh’s palace, Moses understands how to build a state and manage it. Living with Jethro, he gains a broad perspective on the peoples and communities of the world, their history and interactions. Moses needs all this in order to be able to lead the Exodus, but after this “external preparation” Moses’ connection with the people must be restored. However, it does not go very smoothly.
When God invites Moses to lead the Exodus from Egypt, Moses initially refuses the commission. The apparent reason, as noted earlier [33], is Moses’ disappointment with the Jewish people. Only after God pressures him to take up the task does Moses actually accept it.
Moses obeys, but at first only on a purely physical level, for he has not yet accepted the task in any spiritual sense. He believes that the legacy of the Patriarchs in Egypt is now all but dead, and that there is therefore no longer any point to align himself with it (but Moses also believes that a completely new level of connection with God, the Sinai Revelation, will very soon come into existence, whose embodiment will be none other than the Jews now enslaved in Egypt). That is why Moses does not circumcise his son, for he has no desire to introduce him into the covenant of Abraham. Instead, he wants to initiate his son into the new and renewed covenant – the covenant of Sinai [34].
God showed Moses that his approach was wrong: “At a night encampment on the way, the Lord encountered him and sought to kill him. So Zipporah took a flint and cut off her son’s foreskin, and touched his legs with it, saying, ‘You are truly a bridegroom of blood to me!’ And when He let him alone, she added, ‘A bridegroom of blood because of the circumcision.’ (4:24−26)”. Zipporah’s act of circumcision, which saved Moses’ life, demonstrated that the Abrahamic covenant was still valid. It demonstrated that it is impossible to enter a covenant of commandments while bypassing the covenant of ideals, for there is more to life than legalities alone. Moses realized his error and corrected it. After first moving away from the people he now returns to them, in order to establish the Sinai covenant without abandoning the Patriarchal covenant.
3.2. The Death of Jacob’s Family, and the Birth of the Nation (1:1–7)
(1) These are the names of the sons of Israel who came to Egypt with Jacob, each coming with his household:
(2) Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah;
(3) Issachar, Zebulun, and Benjamin;
(4) Dan and Naphtali, Gad and Asher.
(5) The total number of persons that were of Jacob’s issue came to seventy, Joseph being already in Egypt.
(6) Joseph died, and all his brothers, and all that generation.
(7) But the Israelites were fertile and prolific; they multiplied and increased very greatly, so that the land was filled with them.
(1) These are the names: These first verses of Exodus describe the transition from a family to a nation. The story of the Jewish nation begins with an overview of its roots, of which there are two complementary aspects: the twelve tribes, represented by Jacob’s twelve sons, and the seventy souls who descended to Egypt, all of whom are Jacob’s direct descendants.
The names of the sons of Israel: By enumerating the names of each of the twelve tribes, the Torah wishes to emphasize their uniqueness. The tribes are not just faceless slices of the population. Each tribe, a uniquely individual entity having its own character and personality, will make its own special contribution to the future life of the nation.
According to the Midrash, the Jews in Egypt had a number of special merits that made them worthy of redemption from slavery. One of those was that “they did not change their names.” A person’s name carries a clear element of purpose and meaning. When a person is mindful of where he came from, where he is headed, and why he is here in the first place, such thoughts can be extremely conducive to realizing his mission in the world. Despite all the burdens of slavery, the Jews remembered that they were descended from the Patriarchs, and they remembered the Land to which they were destined to return (it is the same Land, which was mentioned to them by Joseph, Gen. 50:25, Exod. 13:19).
It should be noted that in the first chapter and the beginning of the second chapter of Exodus, names are virtually absent (except for the names of the sons of Jacob, all of whom have already died). The people are nameless, because their personalities are suppressed by slavery. The only exceptions to this are the midwives Shiphrah and Puah, and later Moses, because they assert themselves as individuals who dare to oppose the system.
The sons of Israel: In this verse “the sons of Israel” means, simply, the twelve sons of Jacob. But just a little later (v. 7) the same term becomes an ethnonym. Eventually, the name “Israel” will be the primary name of the Jewish people.
(5) The total number of persons that were of Jacob’s issue came to seventy: Seventy in Judaism is a typological number, alluding to the seventy nations of the world [35]. Thus, the Jewish people is a microcosm, as it were, of all of humanity. Among the Jewish people there must be “representatives” of each of the other nations. In order to advance all of mankind, the Jews must be able to establish contact and mutual understanding with each of the nations of the world.
(6) Joseph died, and all his brothers, and all that generation: The process of creating the new nation begins with the death of Jacob’s sons. The Jewish people is created in two stages. First Abraham, Isaac and Jacob create a family. Only after this family dies can the actual nation gradually come into existence.
This is not only about physical death (if such were the case the Torah would have no reason to mention it, since it is obvious that over time every generation inevitably dies). Rather, it is the heritage of the Patriarchs that is dying here, their ideals and values; of them only a faint reflection remains, a memory (the Jews “did not change their names”).
In order to create a new and viable nation, this reflection had to be turned into something more. We can compare the death of Jacob’s sons to the process of conception, in which the seed of Israel was destroyed in Egypt, just as when a child is born, the father’s seed is completely consumed inside the mother in the process of creating a child, and only genetic material remains to be taken from it. Joseph’s generation dies in just this sense. The previous generational line has completely died out, and now a nation must be created in a totally new way.
(7) So that the land was filled with them: The Jews are gradually spreading from the land of Goshen to other parts of Egypt. The Jews in Egypt were still only a proto-nation. Although they had a certain national identity, there was no sense of the Jews as a separate and independent entity.
The Midrash offers us yet another approach to reading this verse. According to the Midrash, “The land was filled with them” means that circus arenas and amphitheaters were filled with Jews, who were now aligning themselves with Egypt’s cultural stratum. The Jews were becoming assimilated into Egypt’s general culture, and it would therefore become necessary not only to remove the Jews from Egypt, but also to “remove Egypt from the Jews.”
3.3. “A new king arose over Egypt” (1:8-14)
(8) A new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph.
(9) And he said to his people, “Look, the Israelite people are much too numerous for us.
(10) Let us deal shrewdly with them, so that they may not increase; otherwise in the event of war they may join our enemies in fighting against us and rise from the ground.”
(11) So they set taskmasters over them to oppress them with forced labor; and they built garrison cities for Pharaoh: Pithom and Raamses.
(12) But the more they were oppressed, the more they increased and spread out, so that the [Egyptians] came to dread the Israelites.
(13) The Egyptians ruthlessly imposed upon the Israelites
(14) the various labors that they made them perform. Ruthlessly they made life bitter for them with harsh labor at mortar and bricks and with all sorts of tasks in the field.
(8) A new king arose over Egypt: This did not happen immediately. At least a century had passed since Joseph’s death.
Who did not know Joseph: Needless to say, the new Pharaoh is familiar with the story of Joseph, but he does not want to know him. He does not want to acknowledge Joseph’s merits, or even to hear about him. Jewish life in Egypt (and in the Diaspora, in general) is not an independent existence, but subject to the whims of each ruler; previous successes are no guarantee of security. Even if a given generation manages to succeed in the Diaspora, a new ruler will always arise, sooner or later, such that all previous attempts to assimilate into the dominant culture will necessarily be doomed to failure.
But it is important to note that the new Pharaoh is introduced only after “the land was filled with the Jews,” that is, after the Jews had already integrated into the country and absorbed many of its achievements. It was now time to begin the process of severing them from it. In this regard, Pharaoh’s refusal to “know” Joseph was a necessary prerequisite to separating the Jews from Egypt (Hebrew yada’, “knew,” always indicates a very close connection between the knower and the person or thing known). Thus, all the hardships that Israel endured as slaves to the Egyptians were necessary for the birth of the Jewish nation.
(9) And he said to his people, “Look, the Israelite people are much too numerous for us: If you wish to destroy someone, your first step must be to declare him an “enemy of the people” and set the masses against him.
The literal translation here is “the Israelite people are more numerous and more powerful than we are.” But that is not entirely clear. After all, there are undoubtedly far fewer Jews in Egypt than Egyptians. The rendering given by the translation here therefore seems more correct. “The Israelite people are much too numerous for us,” i.e., we Egyptians cannot allow such a large and powerful people to live in such close proximity to us.
(10) Let us deal shrewdly with them: The Midrash believes that the birth of Miriam, Moses’ older sister, coincided with the beginning of the Egyptian persecutions, and that her name “Miriam” is derived from the Hebrew word mar, “bitter.”
So that they may not increase; otherwise in the event of war they may join our enemies in fighting against us and rise from the ground: The literal, more common translation is: “… they will fight against us and ascend from the (i.e., our) land.” But what danger do the Jews pose to Egypt? And since the Egyptians are prepared to destroy the Jews, what, then, is the urgency of preventing them from leaving the country? Apparently, the Egyptians, much as they dislike the Jews, are also averse to their departure, since the Jews are an important economic force in Egypt.
The phrase “and leave the land” has no explicit subject. Exactly who will leave the land? It is most natural of course to assume it refers to the Israelites. But we can also understand it in the opposite sense: “We, the Egyptians, will leave the land, for they will drive us out.” The Egyptians fear that the Jews, in collusion with Egypt’s enemies, will drive out (or perhaps enslave) the Egyptians themselves.
But there is yet a third possible reading: “They will lift up (something) from the land,” that is, they will leave, and take the riches of our country with them. The Egyptians fear that the Jews, upon leaving, will strip Egypt of its content and meaning – they will devastate Egyptian civilization.
And this is exactly what happened in the end, with Pharaoh’s own actions, more than anything else, contributing to that result. The aggressions perpetrated by the Egyptians against the Jews aroused in them the desire to leave Egypt.
(11) So they set taskmasters over them to oppress them with forced labor; and they built garrison cities for Pharaoh: Pithom and Raamses: This is the first stage of enslavement. The Egyptians want to give the impression that their goals are entirely highly constructive, but in actuality their only objective is to benefit themselves.
(12) But the more they were oppressed, the more they increased and spread out: A weak nation when subjected to external pressure will be even further weakened, and gradually disappear. But for a strong nation the result is quite the opposite – it increases and advances.
So that the [Egyptians] came to dread the Israelites: An alternate translation is “the Israelites became abhorrent to them.” The Egyptians sense that they are psychologically weaker than the Jews, and are rather certain that were they to find themselves in the same situation, they would simply capitulate. This feeling of inferiority engenders hatred.
(14) … the various labors that they made them perform. Ruthlessly they made life bitter for them with harsh labor at mortar and bricks and with all sorts of tasks in the field: This is the next stage of enslavement, and also the next stage of degradation for the Egyptians, which happens in parallel with the strengthening of the Jewish people. The Egyptians no longer have a constructive goal of building something for themselves. Their primary objective is simply to crush the Jews.
But the Midrash asks: Given that the Almighty has predetermined that the Jews would be subjected to Egyptian slavery, why, then, are the Egyptians held responsible for enslaving them? The Midrash answers: Indeed, it was predetermined by God that the Jews would be enslaved to the Egyptians, but it was the Egyptian’s own decision to oppress the Jews with such extreme cruelty. That is why the Egyptians are punished.
3.4. The Midwives Disobey Pharaoh (1:15-22)
(15) The king of Egypt spoke to the Hebrew midwives, one of whom was named Shiphrah and the other Puah,
(16) saying, “When you deliver the Hebrew women, look at the birthstool: if it is a boy, kill him; if it is a girl, let her live.”
(17) The midwives, fearing God, did not do as the king of Egypt had told them; they let the boys live.
(18) So the king of Egypt summoned the midwives and said to them, “Why have you done this thing, letting the boys live?”
(19) The midwives said to Pharaoh, “Because the Hebrew women are not like the Egyptian women: they are vigorous. Before the midwife can come to them, they have given birth.”
(20) And God dealt well with the midwives; and the people multiplied and increased greatly.
(21) And because the midwives feared God, He established households for them.
(22) Then Pharaoh charged all his people, saying, “Every boy that is born you shall throw into the Nile, but let every girl live.”
(15) The king of Egypt spoke to the Hebrew midwives: Some of the commentators understand the expression “Hebrew midwives” to mean that the midwives were themselves Jewish. But if so, it seems strange that Pharaoh is not wary of giving them such an assignment, and that they, even if only in words, would accept it and agree to execute it. The alternate opinion therefore seems more logical – they are Egyptian midwives who were assisting the Jewish women in childbirth (thus, perhaps the translation here should be not “the Hebrew midwives” but “the midwives of the Hebrews”). But since the midwives are themselves Egyptian, not Jewish, we can infer that the growing oppression of the Jews has provoked opposition even among the general Egyptian population, and that a group of pro-Jewish Egyptians is now emerging.
One of whom was named Shiphrah and the other Puah: As noted earlier, except for the names of the sons of Jacob in the opening passage of the book there are practically no names in the first chapter and the beginning of the second chapter of the book of Exodus. The Jews in Egypt are nameless, having lost their identity as individuals, because they are beaten down by slavery. Only the midwives are named, because they proved themselves to be individuals willing to stand by their convictions in rebelling against the system.
(16) Saying, “When you deliver the Hebrew women, look at the birthstool: if it is a boy, kill him; if it is a girl, let her live”: The Midrash explains that men most typically represent the dominant, active human aspect, while women, as mere subordinates, are the receivers. Pharaoh’s decision to destroy the boys and save the girls means that he wants to preserve the Jews within the Egyptian system, but not to give them their independence. He wants the Jews’ singular qualities that are so beneficial to Egypt (most notably, their skill at performing useful work) to remain there. But the danger posed by Jewish independence, as he sees it, must be eliminated.
(17) The midwives, fearing God, did not do as the king of Egypt had told them; they let the boys live: Fear of God is presented here as the basis for countering the systematic evil of the state.
(19-20) The midwives said to Pharaoh, “Because the Hebrew women are not like the Egyptian women: they are vigorous. Before the midwife can come to them, they have given birth.” And God dealt well with the midwives; and the people multiplied and increased greatly: Here the Torah continues its theme of contrasting the physical and spiritual advancement of the Jews with the physical and moral degradation of the Egyptians.
(21) And because the midwives feared God, He established households for them: It would seem that the Almighty now openly intervenes in the goings on in Egypt. Those who side with the Jews and support them are themselves successful. A certain stereotype is forming, which in the future will drive the accession of a sizeable Egyptian element to the Jewish Exodus.
(22) Then Pharaoh charged all his people, saying, “Every boy that is born you shall throw into the Nile, but let every girl live”: Because, Pharaoh’s efforts in acting through the midwives (i.e., through furtive channels) have failed, he makes a public appeal to his people. It is no longer only state power persecuting the Jews; the entire nation is complicit. Thus, the blame for those persecutions now falls not only on the Egyptian authorities, but extends to all the Egyptians.
Chapter 4. Moses’ Birth and Formative Years
4.1. The Birth of Moses (2:1-10)
(1) A certain man of the house of Levi went and married a Levite woman.
(2) The woman conceived and bore a son; and when she saw how beautiful he was, she hid him for three months.
(3) When she could hide him no longer, she got a wicker basket for him and caulked it with bitumen and pitch. She put the child into it and placed it among the reeds by the bank of the Nile.
(4) And his sister stationed herself at a distance, to learn what would befall him.
(5) The daughter of Pharaoh came down to bathe in the Nile, while her maidens walked along the Nile. She spied the basket among the reeds and sent her slave girl to fetch it.
(6) When she opened it, she saw that it was a child, a boy crying. She took pity on it and said, “This must be a Hebrew child.”
(7) Then his sister said to Pharaoh’s daughter, “Shall I go and get you a Hebrew nurse to suckle the child for you?”
(8) And Pharaoh’s daughter answered, “Yes.” So the girl went and called the child’s mother.
(9) And Pharaoh’s daughter said to her, “Take this child and nurse it for me, and I will pay your wages.” So the woman took the child and nursed it.
(10) When the child grew up, she brought him to Pharaoh’s daughter, who made him her son. She named him Moses, explaining, “I drew him out of the water.”
The Jewish people are born from Egypt itself, by integrating with it – and the same thing happens to Moses on a personal level. He is a Jew by birth but culturally an Egyptian. Suckled from birth by his own mother, Moses is at the same time the adopted son of Pharaoh’s daughter, and a member of the ruling dynasty. This duality in Moses is very important for understanding the Exodus.
(1) A certain man of the house of Levi went and married a Levite woman: Moses’ father’s name is not indicated here; only later from verse 6:20 do we learn that his name was Amram. All we are told here is that he is a member of the tribe of Levi. Although the Jews’ personal names – and thus their self-identification – was erased and suppressed by enslavement, the Jews nonetheless preserved their national (tribal) names, i.e., their collective memory that they were descended from the sons of Jacob.
At the beginning of this book of Exodus, moreover, all individual activity is performed by women: the midwives, Moses’ mother and sister, and Pharaoh’s daughter. All of those, at great personal risk to themselves, act in opposition to the authorities, who seek to exterminate the Jewish people.
The Midrash reinforces this theme (Talmud, Sotah 12a):
It is written: “And there went a man of the house of Levi.”
Where did he go? R. Judah b. Zebina said that he went in the counsel of his daughter. A Tanna taught: Amram was the greatest man of his generation; when he saw that the wicked Pharaoh had decreed 'Every son that is born ye shall cast into the river', he said: In vain do we labor. He arose and divorced his wife. All [the Israelites] thereupon arose and divorced their wives. His daughter said to him, 'Father, thy decree is more severe than Pharaoh's; because Pharaoh decreed only against the males whereas thou hast decreed against the males and females. Pharaoh only decreed concerning this world whereas thou hast decreed concerning this world and the World to Come. In the case of the wicked Pharaoh there is a doubt whether his decree will be fulfilled or not, whereas in thy case, though thou art righteous, it is certain that thy decree will be fulfilled, as it is said: Thou shalt also decree a thing, and it shall be established unto thee!
He arose and took his wife back; and they all arose and took their wives back.
Pharaoh commands to destroy only the males, who in Hebrew are called zachar – those responsible for preserving the zecher, “the memory,” of the people. There was a certain logic to Pharaoh’s plan: By erasing the national memory, Pharaoh would destroy the Jewish people’s existence as an independent entity.
In response, the men abandoned their struggle for the perpetuation of the clan. To them, Pharaoh’s decree meant the impossibility of passing on the zachar (masculinity, memory, traditions), and thus it meant for them the end of the nation’s existence. Amram had therefore decided to completely withdraw, to stop having children before Pharaoh could actually destroy the Jewish nation.
Essentially, that decision indicated a loss of faith and, along with it, the vitality needed for carrying on with life. In this context the Midrash has Amram being challenged by none other than his own daughter; in other words, it is a confrontation of the past and the future. Miriam, despite here tender age, understands what her father Amram, an adult man and the leader of his generation, could not understand: Future life, however unfulfilling, is no less important than memory of the past, and one must fight for that life, come what may. Women belong to the future, which prevents them from losing faith. The present exists for the sake of the future; we must live, and we must fight, so that the future will arrive. We must not give up on life even in the most hopeless of situations.
(2) The woman conceived and bore a son: When the Torah mentions not only a birth, but specifically mentions the conception as well, this indicates the onset of a new stage of development. This birth is more than just an unremarkable link in the same generational chain.
And when she saw how beautiful he was: The literal translation is, “She saw that he was good.” But doesn’t every mother consider her newborn child “good”? This expression must mean something more than just “a good child.”
The Midrash notes that the expression used here to describe Moses at birth mimics the almost identical one at the beginning of Creation (Gen. 1:4) when God created light: “God saw that the light was good (ki tov).”
Moses’ most salient quality is that he strives to be the “light” of everything good, to spread that light, and to personify the intolerance of evil. Wherever and whenever Moses encounters evil, he feels an immediate need to challenge it.
She hid him for three months: The Torah is emphasizing that Moses spent the initial period of his infancy in the warmth of family surroundings.
(3) When she could hide him no longer: This means that the Egyptian persecution of the Jews was intensifying. According to the Midrash, Pharaoh’s servants counted nine months from the moment the Jews returned to their wives, and then immediately began a generalized roundup of all newborn boys. Moses was born prematurely, after six months of pregnancy; his mother was thus able to hide him for three months, but no longer.
She got a wicker basket for him and caulked it with bitumen and pitch. She put the child into it and placed it among the reeds by the bank of the Nile: The basket in which Moses was placed by his mother bears a connection to Noah's ark (Gen. 6:14; the Torah uses the same term, teivah, a word not commonly encountered, in both cases). The connection is not hard to see. Noah’s ark saves him from the Deluge, after which a new stage in the world’s development begins. And Moses is saved by the basket from the waters of the Nile, which likewise opens a new page of human history.
In light of this parallelism, we must also take note of the details and consider their differences. Noah’s ark is coated only with tar, while Moses’s basket is smeared with both tar and clay. Tar is associated with passive protection (from water), while clay is a primary element of active construction. Noah is saved, but he is passive. Moses, who repeatedly assumes the role of a savior, is active in the extreme.
She put the child into it and placed it among the reeds by the bank of the Nile: As it later turns out, this placement of the basket was not accidental; it was at the shoreline frequented by Pharaoh’s daughter. We have an impression that the entire event was staged in advance; perhaps there was even an agreement made from the start with Pharaoh’s daughter.
(4) And his sister stationed herself at a distance, to learn what would befall him: The Jewish people in the era of Egyptian slavery owe their salvation to the women of their generation. Taking responsibility for the preservation of family values is one of Miriam’s characteristic features, and will continue to be evident in the brothers-and-sister triumvirate of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam.
(5) The daughter of Pharaoh came down to bathe in the Nile: It is stressed that this location on the banks of the Nile was no ordinary place, for it was apparently reserved for royalty.
While her maidens walked along the Nile: But even so, they did not object to Miriam too being there.
She spied the basket among the reeds and sent her slave girl to fetch it: In order for Moses to become a leader, it was important that he grow up among the Egyptian elite and be raised by them. A leader of the people comes not from the lower echelons, but from the top. Because a Jewish leader will be needed for the future Exodus, the Almighty, in anticipation of that, sends a Jewish child to Pharaoh’s palace. There he will receive a proper education, and assimilate essential concepts of his country’s governmental structure, its achievements, and its culture. This knowledge will prove invaluable to him later for creating Jewish sovereignty.
(6) When she opened it, she saw that it was a child, a boy crying. She took pity on it: Ultimately, it is the child’s crying that drives her decision to save him. In critical moments, human sensitivity is often far more helpful than brute strength.
And said, “This must be a Hebrew child”: The Torah does not tell us how she arrives at this conclusion. Pharaoh’s daughter realizes, apparently, that only a Jewish mother would leave her child in the Nile, because of the ongoing persecutions. This statement also expresses her indignation against her father’s evil decrees.
(7) Then his sister said to Pharaoh’s daughter: The members of Moses’ family freely communicate with Pharaoh’s daughter, which means that they are representatives of the “Jewish elite.” Later, it will become clear that Aaron, Moses’ brother, holds a position along the lines of “Chief Rabbi” of the Egyptian Jewish community. And we have already quoted the Midrash which informs us that Amram, Moses’ father, was among the most prominent Jews of his generation.
(7-9) “Shall I go and get you a Hebrew nurse …?” And Pharaoh’s daughter answered, “Yes.” So the girl went and called the child’s mother. And Pharaoh’s daughter said to her, “Take this child and nurse it for me…”: Pharaoh’s daughter relates very positively to Jews and Jewishness, which further confirms the presence of a pro-Jewish contingent among the Egyptians.
And I will pay your wages: Moses is now back in the arms of his very own mother. But even better, she now earns a fee for nursing him. At the same time, this emphasizes that from this moment on Moses belongs to both of those worlds, the Jewish and the Egyptian.
So the woman took the child and nursed it. (10) When the child grew up she brought him to Pharaoh’s daughter: That is, Moses was brought up in the Jewish community until he had reached an age of sufficient self-awareness that he would not break off ties with the Jewish people in the future.
She brought him to Pharaohs daughter, who made him her son: Moses thus received not just an ordinary Egyptian education, but specialized training befitting a future leader of state.
She named him Moses, explaining, “I drew him out of the water”: Grammatically, the Hebrew word meshitihu can mean either “I drew him out” or “you (fem.) drew him out.” Who, then, is the “she” that named Moses? Who is talking here? Is it Pharaoh’s daughter, or Moses’ mother addressing herself to Pharaoh’s daughter? The Torah does not specify.
Moreover, depending on which of the two women named Moses, we would expect the name to reflect either Egyptian or Hebrew etymology. But linguistic analysis has shown that the answer to that question as well can go either way. Associations for the name “Moshe” or “Moses” can be found in both the Hebrew and the Egyptian languages.
In ancient Egyptian, the name means, simply, “son” (the same word also forms part of the names of many of the Pharaohs – “Tut-mos,” for example). In Hebrew the derivation of the name is as the text itself here states: from the verb mashah, “pull, or draw (from the water).” This duality of Moses’ name itself corresponds to his dual (Jewish-Egyptian) identity, which allowed Moses to develop in different directions, giving him great freedom of choice.
4.2. Moses Chooses a Jewish Identity (2:11-12)
(11) Some time after that, when Moses had grown up, he went out to his kinsfolk and witnessed their labors. He saw an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, one of his kinsmen.
(12) He turned this way and that and, seeing no one about, he struck down the Egyptian and hid him in the sand.
(11) Moses had grown up: This is the second time that Moses grows up (the first was in the previous verse, v. 10). This time he grows up psychologically, as he understands that he is a crown prince.
He went out to his kinsfolk: Literally, “He went out to his brothers.” The words “his brothers” could refer to either the Egyptians or the Jews. Moses, nursed by his birth mother but brought up in Pharaoh’s palace (i.e., he received both Jewish and Egyptian upbringings) must at some point choose with whom he identifies more strongly and wishes to be associated. Moses left the palace and “went out to his brothers” to finally find out which of them are his true brothers.
And witnessed their labors: Moses’ awareness of social injustice was the first step toward his Jewish self-identification. There is nothing inherently unfair in that some people work and others manage them. But the fact that the Jews endure inordinately harsh exertions and are brutally compelled to do so was a clear violation of justice in Moses’ eyes.
He saw an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, one of his kinsmen: Seeing injustice accompanied by violence, Moses concludes decisively that it is the Jews who are his brothers.
(11-12) He saw an Egyptian beating a Hebrew … he struck down the Egyptian: In this verse, the Torah uses the same Hebrew verb for “beating” and “struck down": lehakot, (“to beat, smite, kill”). In other words, Moses did to the Egyptian the very same that the latter had tried to do to the Jew. This too emphasizes the justice of Moses’ actions.
(12) He struck down the Egyptian: As a member of the ruling class, Moses could simply have ordered the Egyptian overseer to cease and desist. But Moses decides instead that the Egyptian must be killed. What was behind this decision?
(12) He turned this way and that and, seeing no one about: Wherever the Torah uses the word ish, “man, person", it means a person of particular importance. And likewise, ein ish, “there is no one", means that there is “no worthy person” to be found. Moses, turning this way and that – scanning the entire governmental system that he knows so well – sees that there is no one there to come to the defense of the oppressed. He decides then and there not only to intervene in this particular incident, but to renounce the entire Egyptian system of government.
Moses kills the Egyptian as a means of encouraging the Jews, of arousing their self-esteem and their aversion to tolerating Egyptian violence of any kind (much later, Samson will act similarly, deliberately lacerating the Philistines in order to raise the Jews’ spirits. See Jud. 14:4).
4.3. “Then the matter is known!” (2:13-14)
(13) When he went out the next day, he found two Hebrews fighting; so he said to the offender, “Why do you strike your fellow?”
(14) He retorted, “Who made you chief and ruler over us? Do you mean to kill me as you killed the Egyptian?” Moses was frightened, and thought: Then the matter is known!
(13) When he went out the next day, he found two Hebrews fighting; so he said to the offender, “Why do you strike your fellow?”: Because Moses tries to achieve justice in every situation he encounters, he again intervenes in this second, new conflict. But this time it turns out that his efforts are to no avail. And the reason for this is to be found in the Jews themselves.
(14) He retorted, “Who made you chief and ruler over us? Do you mean to kill me as you killed the Egyptian?": Not only does he disobey Moses; he derisively rejects the very suggestion of establishing justice in this situation.
Moses was frightened, and thought: Then the matter is known!: This is usually understood to mean that it became known that Moses had killed the Egyptian overseer. But the word noda‘ can means both “known” and “understood.” The Midrash therefore reads this verse differently. “It was now clear to Moses why the Jews deserved to be enslaved. They were morally depraved, brawlers and informers totally incapable of appreciating that someone had come to their aid.” Thus, the Midrash believes that Moses, disillusioned with the Jewish people, now decided that it would be best to not have to deal with them at all.
Moses was frightened: Moses’ earlier worldview (“the Jews are downtrodden, but they are all essentially very fine people who only need to be defended in order to rise and stand on their feet”) has now begun to disintegrate, and his inner fears are aroused [36]. In Moses’ plans for the advancement of mankind he must now find someone to rely on other than the Jewish people, who are not – as he previously believed – merely “disadvantaged by their enslavement.” This crisis has led to a radical change in Moses’ attitude.
4.4. Moses Flees to Midian (2:15-22)
(15) When Pharaoh learned of the matter, he sought to kill Moses; but Moses fled from Pharaoh. He arrived in the land of Midian, and sat down beside a well.
(16) Now the priest of Midian had seven daughters. They came to draw water, and filled the troughs to water their father’s flock;
(17) but shepherds came and drove them off. Moses rose to their defense, and he watered their flock.
(18) When they returned to their father Reuel, he said, “How is it that you have come back so soon today?”
(19) They answered, “An Egyptian rescued us from the shepherds; he even drew water for us and watered the flock.”
(20) He said to his daughters, “Where is he then? Why did you leave the man? Ask him in to break bread.”
(21) Moses consented to stay with the man, and he gave Moses his daughter Zipporah as wife.
(22) She bore a son whom he named Gershom, for he said, “I have been a stranger in a foreign land.”
(15) When Pharaoh learned of the matter, he sought to kill Moses; but Moses fled from Pharaoh: Pharaoh heard not only that Moses had killed the overseer, but also that the Jews refused to recognize Moses as “chief and ruler over us.” This meant that Moses could be killed with impunity – no one would raise any objection.
There is nothing more for Moses to do in Egypt. He has rebelled against the Egyptian system, and is deeply disappointed in the Jews. The hopes and dreams of his youth have been shattered. Moses therefore flees Egypt.
He arrived in the land of Midian: Midian was located to the northeast of Elath (the modern city of Eilat). Moses had walked about four hundred kilometers along the trade route that traversed the Sinai Peninsula.
And sat down beside a well: The well is a traditional meeting place, and a place for choosing a wife [37]. Moses decides to find a wife in Midian, in the hope that a new chosen people would be created from him, and not from the Jews who were now degraded by Egyptian slavery.
The Midianites were descendants of Abraham from his second wife Keturah (Gen. 25:2), and also potential heirs to Abraham’s eminence. Unlike the descendants of Ishmael and Esau who clashed with Isaac and Jacob, the descendants of Keturah have no history of conflict with the Children of Israel. It is therefore quite natural for Moses to attempt to find mutual understanding with the Midianites. Perhaps the autonomous Midianites can serve as the foundation for creating a new chosen people? Perhaps it was in Midian that a certain divine seed was preserved from Abraham, which can now be sprouted?
(16) Now the priest of Midian had seven daughters: The word kohen can denote an ecclesiastical priest as well as a patriarch (or prince).
(16-17) They came to draw water, and filled the troughs to water their fathers flock, but shepherds came and drove them off: There is an obvious discrepancy between the status of a father as a high-ranking patriarch-priest of the Midianites, and that his many daughters, besides having to water his sheep themselves, are also defenseless against the other shepherds. The Midrash therefore concludes that the priest of Midian refused to participate in idolatry and came into conflict with the other Midianites. That is why his daughters had not married, and why Moses’ arrival so pleased him.
(17) Moses rose to their defense, and he watered their flock: Although he is alone, a defenseless stranger in a foreign country, Moses immediately enters the fray when he sees someone being abused. We have already noted that the Torah, at the beginning of Moses’ story, tells of three types of conflict in which Moses intervenes: between a Jew and a non-Jew, between two Jews, and between non-Jews. Moses’ predisposition to defending the oppressed is one of his most prominent qualities.
(18) To their father Reuel: The Torah uses various names to refer to Moses' father-in-law: Reuel, Jethro, Hobab. Some commentators believe that these are different people, and that Reuel is the girls’ grandfather, and not their father; that is, he is Jethro’s father. However, we often find in the Torah that one and the same person is called by several different names depending on the context.
He said, “How is it that you have come back so soon today?”: They would usually come home much later. His daughters were being constantly harassed by the other shepherds, and there was nothing the family could do about it.
(19) They answered, “An Egyptian rescued us…”: In his outward appearance and behavior Moses has the features of an Egyptian. And at this point he still actually is, to a certain extent, more Egyptian than Jewish.
An Egyptian rescued us from the shepherds; he even drew water for us and watered the flock: That is, he has demonstrated truly extraordinary benevolence.
(20) He said to his daughters, “Where is he then? Why did you leave the man? Ask him in to break bread”: Jethro’s generosity to a stranger he has never even met accords with Abraham’s principle of hospitality [38]. Thus, Jethro and his family are not only Abraham’s genealogical descendants, but his spiritual heirs as well.
The Torah clearly contrasts Jethro's response to Moses’s actions with the behavior of the Jews in Egypt. When Moses kills the Egyptian who was tormenting Jews, he receives only a hostile response. But Jethro, seeing that Moses has defended his daughters, invites him into his home, shows him respect and gratitude, and even gives Moses his daughter’s hand in marriage. Moses sees all this as a worthy moral foundation for progressing toward holiness. He therefore agrees to live with Jethro and to shepherd his flocks (in the literal but also figurative sense; that is, to be a spiritual leader to Jethro’s followers). And Jethro in turn becomes a mentor to Moses.
The Midrash describes the situation as follows.
“In the twilight between the end of the sixth day of Creation and the onset of the first Sabbath, the Almighty created a special staff and gave it to Adam in the Garden of Eden. The staff then passed from Adam to Shem, Noah’s son, who kept it with him in his father’s ark. The staff was then transferred to Abraham, from him to Isaac and Jacob, and after them to Joseph.
After Joseph’s death, Pharaoh appropriated the staff for his own personal use. Jethro, who had been one of Pharaoh's advisers, asked Pharaoh for the staff and carried it with him from Egypt. Upon arriving in Midian, he stuck it in the ground among the trees of his garden.
When, as it turned out, no one could extricate the staff from the ground, Jethro decided that he would marry off his daughter to the first man who could accomplish it. Moses eventually arrived, took up the challenge, and easily pulled the staff out of the ground. Jethro, who now understood that Moses was destined to become a great leader, gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage, and accepted him as a disciple.”
The staff is a symbol of spiritual leadership. Transfer of the staff corresponds to transitions of leadership.
(21) Moses consented to stay with the man, and he gave Moses his daughter Zipporah as wife: When Moses was mistaken for an Egyptian, at first he did not object. But now the situation is changing. The Midianites, descendants of Abraham from his second wife Keturah, are culturally ivrim, “Hebrews” [39]. The Egyptians will not eat together with such people (“for the Egyptians could not dine with the Hebrews, since that would be abhorrent to the Egyptians” Gen. 43:32). By agreeing to eat and live with Jethro, Moses in his behavior ceases to be an Egyptian, and reunites with the Hebrew line.
(22) She bore a son whom he named Gershom, for he said, “I have been a stranger in a foreign land”: With the birth of a son, Moses is now settled for the long term in the country of his choice. After changing his citizenship and turning the page on his previous life, Moses is now determined to create a new chosen people from his own descendants. Life in Midian under Jethro’s leadership thus becomes the next stage in the development of Moses’ personality.
Chapter 5. The Burning Bush: Moses is Chosen for His Mission
5.1. “God remembered His covenant” (2:23 – 25)
(23) A long time after that, the king of Egypt died. The Israelites were groaning under the bondage and cried out; and their cry for help from the bondage rose up to God.
(24) God heard their moaning, and God remembered His covenant with Abraham and Isaac and Jacob.
(25) God looked upon the Israelites, and God took notice of them.
(23) The king of Egypt died. The Israelites were groaning under the bondage and cried out: At first the Jews held out hope that the oppression was the whim of just one particular Pharaoh. But as it turned out, nothing changed after the next Pharaoh assumed the throne.
The Israelites were groaning under the bondage and cried out; and their cry for help from the bondage rose up to God: They did not turn directly to God, for they no longer had any proper realization of the Almighty. All they could was to moan and cry out to no one in particular. But the Almighty took into account also this aspect of their condition.
(24) God heard their moaning, and God remembered His covenant with Abraham and Isaac and Jacob: “God remembered,” means that He freed the Jews from Egyptian bondage earlier than originally scheduled.
According to the covenant with Abraham, the enslavement of Jews in Egypt was to last four centuries (Gen. 15:13). But in the end, God heard their moaning (that is, He took note of their predicament), remembered His covenant, and redeemed the Jews ahead of time.
According to the Midrash, only 210 years had passed, but those two centuries were counted as 430 years (for more on this point, see below §12.4). Because the Jews in Egypt are no longer able to endure the oppression and are on the verge of annihilation, God revises His previous plan.
The implications of this “premature Exodus” will be discussed in detail below. Meanwhile, the Torah proceeds to tell of God’s decision to return Moses to Egypt, and to change Moses’ attitude about leading the Jewish people.
(25) God looked upon the Israelites, and God took notice of them: “God took notice” is here expressed in the Hebrew as vayeda‘. The Hebrew verb Y-D-‘means to know, to recognize, or to be intimately familiar with someone or something. The Midrash therefore translates this passage as “He turned His heart to the Israelites, and from then on would not take His eyes off them.” That is, the Almighty has now adopted a different system of relating to the Jewish people. Instead of simply “launching a program that would drive itself,” God now actively and directly decides the fate of the Jewish people, event by event.
5.2. “An angel of the Lord appeared to him in a blazing fire” (3:1-5)
(1) Now Moses, tending the flock of his father-in-law Jethro, the priest of Midian, drove the flock into the wilderness, and came to Horeb, the mountain of God.
(2) An angel of the Lord appeared to him in a blazing fire out of a bush. He gazed, and there was a bush all aflame, yet the bush was not consumed.
(3) Moses said, “I must turn aside to look at this marvelous sight; why doesn’t the bush burn up”
(4) When the Lord saw that he had turned aside to look, God called to him out of the bush: “Moses! Moses!” He answered, “Here I am”
(5) And He said, “Do not come closer. Remove your sandals from your feet, for the place on which you stand is holy ground“.
(1) Now Moses, tending the flock of his father-in-law Jethro: A shepherd (or pastor) is one who cares for his flock, advances and protects it. As we know from the book of Genesis, our Patriarchs and their families were shepherds. This “secular profession” of the founders of religion left an indelible imprint on future Jewish behavioral models.
His father-in-law Jethro, the priest of Midian: We detect some redundancy here, which we can explain as follows. Moses has long been his father-in-law’s student and has already learned everything that Jethro can teach him. He therefore goes (or Jethro sends him) “into the wilderness, to the mountain of God” to find a new revelation. Thus, Moses is ready to ascend to the next level of his development, precisely when God decides (in accordance with the preceding verses) that the time has come to bring the Jews out of Egypt.
He drove the flock into the wilderness: Literally, “beyond the wilderness,” that is, to the extreme far edge of the wilderness. This cannot be a shepherd’s regular job. Crossing the desert is usually done with a caravan of camels, not with a flock of sheep.
And came to Horeb, the mountain of God: Mount Horeb and Mount Sinai, where the nation will later receive the Torah, are one and the same (the name “Sinai” itself derives from sneh, “bush,” as in the sneh of the next verse that “was all aflame but was not consumed”).
(2) An angel of the Lord appeared to him: Initially only an angel appears to Moses (a lesser degree of Divine revelation).
In a blazing fire out of a bush: This bush was most probably the thorny blackthorn. Its prickly spines are symbolic of the then still imperfect Jewish people.
He gazed, and there was a bush all aflame, yet the bush was not consumed: The bush that burns but is not consumed symbolizes the indestructibility of the Jewish people, even in the face of the fire of suffering and calamity. Moses understands the meaning of the vision and is astounded. He had believed until now that the flame of the Jewish people in Egypt had already burned out, that the hardships of slavery had destroyed the people. When God shows Moses a bush that remains intact even as it continues to burn, Moses understands that he was wrong, and he changes his outlook.
(3) Moses said, “I must turn aside to look at this marvelous sight; why doesn’t the bush burn up?”: By expressing his desire to approach the bush (that is, to understand the meaning of the history of the Jewish people – their indestructibility), Moses has taken a decisive step toward taking up the mission and becoming the leader of the Exodus, even if he himself is not yet aware of this.
(4) When the Lord saw that he had turned aside to look: Here we see the transition to a higher level of revelation. First an angel appeared to Moses, and then the Almighty Himself. God reveals Himself to man only after man has taken his own first step toward God.
God called to him out of the bush: “Moses! Moses!”: As Moses has already begun to change, he acquires at this moment the double name “Moshe, Moshe.” We find that God uses such double names when addressing Abraham, Jacob, and several other exceptional Bible personalities [40].
He answered, “Here I am”: As in God’s conversation with Abraham (Gen. 22:1), this response demonstrates Moses’ initial readiness to accept the mission. However, the intense, protracted dialogue between God and Moses that ensues, lasts several days [41]. This shows that Moses was able, only with very considerable difficulty, to bring himself to actually accept the Divine commission.
(5) And He said: “Do not come closer”: This illustrates the requirement of keeping one’s distance when coming in contact with Divinity.
Remove your sandals from your feet, for the place on which you stand is holy ground: As shoes, which allow a person to go almost anywhere, are a symbol of independence, removing one’s shoes demonstrates dependence and subordination. In holy places and situations requiring holiness (in the Temple, for example), wearing shoes is prohibited, for there one must obey the instructions from Above and self-directed activity [42] is prohibited.
In this story of the Burning Bush, God will force Moses to accept a commission that Moses would much prefer to avoid. The requirement to remove his shoes prior to the conversation is an indication to Moses that, ultimately, he will have no choice but to obey.
5.3. Moses is Afraid to Look at the God of the Patriarchs (3:6-10)
(6) I am,” He said, “the God of your father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.” And Moses hid his face, for he was afraid to look at God.
(7) And the Lord continued, “I have marked well the plight of My people in Egypt and have heeded their outcry because of their taskmasters; yes, I am mindful of their sufferings.
(8) I have come down to rescue them from the Egyptians and to bring them out of that land to a good and spacious land, a land flowing with milk and honey, the region of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites.
(9) Now the cry of the Israelites has reached Me; moreover, I have seen how the Egyptians oppress them.
(10) Come, therefore, I will send you to Pharaoh, and you shall free My people, the Israelites, from Egypt.”
(6) “I am,” He said, “the God of your father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.” And Moses hid his face, for he was afraid to look at God: Moses did not hide his face out of ordinary human fear. We have already just seen that when God revealed Himself to him, Moses answered, “Here I am,” and he did not then cover his face.
But now, after the Almighty has identified Himself as “the God of your father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob,” Moses is afraid to look at God in this new aspect.
This can be explained as follows. Moses thought that he had severed his ties with the Jews of Egypt, distanced himself from the line of the Patriarchs, and already begun to implement his new program. But now he comes to learn that this is not possible. God informs Moses that the line of the Patriarchs will continue, and that Moses’ plans to put the Patriarchs’ descendants aside and give birth to a new chosen people from his marriage with Midian were all in vain. Moses is not pleased with the new approach, and so he covers his face, not wanting to look at the God of the Jewish nation.
(7) And the Lord continued, “I have marked well the plight of My people in Egypt and have heeded their outcry because of their taskmasters; yes, I am mindful of their sufferings”: God clarifies the situation to Moses and emphasizes: “My people are none other than those now suffering in Egypt. You must not hope to create a new nation, nor should you think that the Jewish people are not worthy of the Exodus. Before you blame the Jews for not living up to your expectations, have you thought about their suffering? Having grown up in Pharaoh’s house, you have different standards of measurement and different requirements. Did you really think that all the people needed was to be encouraged by the killing of a single Egyptian overseer, and they would immediately perk up? You obviously don’t understand how difficult things are for the people, how depleted they are of their energies and hopes. You deserted them because they did not acknowledge you. But I will not desert them!”
(8) I have come down to rescue them from the Egyptians and to bring them out of that land to a good and spacious land, a land flowing with milk and honey: It is not enough just to deliver the Jewish people from oppression at the hands of the Egyptians. The nation must relocate from Egypt to the Land of Israel, because only there can it properly develop and realize its mission.
The region of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites: The Torah here enumerates the territories that will later be conquered by Israel.
At the conclusion of His covenant with Abraham, God says: “And they shall return here in the fourth generation, for the iniquity of the Amorites is not yet complete” (Gen. 15:16). At that time the nations did not yet deserve to be exiled. The Holy Land belongs to the Jews, of course, but they have no right to expel other nations from the Land until those nations are themselves guilty of committing inherently immoral acts. If the peoples of Canaan can be corrected (which includes rejecting idolatrous practices and accepting Jewish authority over the Land), then the Jewish people will have neither the right nor the need to expel them. If they would be amenable to correction, those nations could continue to live in the Holy Land under Jewish rule. But by refusing to be reformed, their “iniquity” becomes complete, and those nations ipso facto lose their right to the Land.
(9) Now the cry of the Israelites has reached Me; moreover, I have seen how the Egyptians oppress them: This serves as justification for not postponing the Exodus to a later date. It must begin immediately.
(10) Come, therefore, I will send you to Pharaoh, and you shall free My people, the Israelites, from Egypt”: God mentions here neither the Torah nor the covenant at Sinai. This is all about national values – leaving Egypt and taking possession of the Promised Land.
I will send you to Pharaoh, and you shall free My people: In times past, Moses was simultaneously both an Egyptian Jew and a prince in Pharaoh’s house. In order to accomplish his new mission, Moses will need to bring both of these identities to bear.
5.4. Moses’ Refusal, and the Promise of the Renewal of the Covenant (3:11-12)
(11) But Moses said to God, “Who am I that I should go to Pharaoh and free the Israelites from Egypt?”
(12) And He said, “I will be with you; that shall be your sign that it was I who sent you. And when you have freed the people from Egypt, you shall worship God at this mountain.”
(11) But Moses said to God, “Who am I that I should go to Pharaoh and free the Israelites from Egypt?”: Moses refuses the Divine mission because he does not understand who he is. He has severed his former ties, thus renouncing both his former identities. With what shall he now go to Pharaoh and to the Jews?
(12) And He said, “I will be with you; that shall be your sign that it was I who sent you. And when you have freed the people from Egypt, You shall worship God at this mountain”: God does not grow angry with Moses for refusing the mission. On the contrary, God amends His earlier plan for the Exodus to include “worshipping God on this mountain;” that is, the giving of the Torah at Sinai, the place where this very dialogue between Moses and God is now taking place.
Here for the first time we encounter the idea of the Sinai Revelation, when the people will receive the Law, an expanded system of commandments. This is important not so much for the people as for Moses himself, since, having been raised in Egypt as a statesman, Moses considers the law to be the very foundation of national life.
God therefore tells Moses that although the Chosen People will be created from the Jewish nation that already exists, Moses’ fears regarding the Jews’ spiritual level in Egypt are not unfounded, and his ideas about the need to build a covenant on a new and different foundation, on the Law, are entirely valid. Thus, Moses’s plan will be partially preserved and integrated into God’s own plan.
(11) But Moses said to God, “Who am I that I should go to Pharaoh and free the Israelites from Egypt?”: This is a real question, not a rhetorical one. When Moses asks, “Who am I?”, God answers his question with the words, “You shall worship God at this mountain.” That is: “Since you have asked who you are, my answer to you is, that you, Moses, are the very personification of the Sinai covenant. That is who you are.” Moses, by nature, symbolizes that covenant, and the task of bringing it to the world therefore devolves upon him.
5.5. The Meaning of God’s Name (3:13-15)
(13) Moses said to God, “When I come to the Israelites and say to them ‘The God of your fathers has sent me to you,’ and they ask me, ‘What is His name?’ what shall I say to them?”
(14) And God said to Moses, “Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh.” He continued, “Thus shall you say to the Israelites, ‘Ehyeh sent me to you.’ ”
(15) And God said further to Moses, “Thus shall you speak to the Israelites: The Lord, the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, has sent me to you: This shall be My name forever, This My appellation for all eternity.
(13) Moses said to Go: Moses continues to offer arguments in support of his refusal.
“When I come to the Israelites and say to them ‘The God of your fathers has sent me to you,’ and they ask me, ‘What is His name?’: This weekly portion Shemot, which means “names,” includes a discussion of the names of God. This passage itself contains a number of those names, all of them derived from the verb H-W-H, howeh, “to be,” indicating that the Almighty is the very essence of being in all its various forms.
What shall I say to them?”: This is not about some secret name, for if Moses does not know it, then neither do the Jews. But as we’ve already mentioned, in contrast to the Greek understanding of a name as “the essence of the person or thing so called,” the Jewish concept is that a name represents the meaning and purpose of the person or thing named. When Moses initiates dialogue with the Jews to bring them God’s message, they will ask, “What is His name,” demanding that Moses explain God’s objective; that is, the reason that God wants to bring them out of Egypt.
(14) And God said to Moses, “Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh”: The Torah here invokes the Divine Name Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh, “I will be that which I will be,” a double future form, as it were, of the verb howeh, “to be.”
This Divine name is often translated as “I am Who I am, “I Am the Essence, “I am He Who is existence itself, Whose being is eternal” (absolute, autonomous, etc.) and other similar renderings. But these translations ignore the fact that the verb ehyeh in this Name is in the future tense: Not “I am,” but “I will be.”
It would be more correct to translate this name as “I will be He Who I wish to be.” The greatest power, the maximal opportunity, and the fullest self-realization is in our ability to become everything that we want to be, to advance according to our own individual aspirations [43].
This name of God is associated also with the concept of freedom. This is itself understood as the ability to move and develop in any direction, to make decisions regarding oneself. But because only God has absolute freedom, only He establishes freedom as an ideal for all of humanity.
It is now clear what it means for a person to “know God’s Name.” That Name must reflect the Divine quality to which every human being, created in God’s image and likeness, should strive. Which in this case, within the context of the Exodus story, suggests that the fullness of self-realization is precisely that Divine quality whose approximation is the goal of the Exodus.
He continued, “Thus shall you say to the Israelites, ‘Ehyeh sent me to you.’ ” This one-word name, the simple future tense of the verb howeh, “to be,” is a reduced and simplified form of the previous three-word name. It too connotes aspiration for future advancement, but without emphasizing the aspect of “becoming who one wants to become.” Thus, after first revealing His Name to Moses at its very highest level, the Almighty then instructs Moses to present it to the people in a somewhat reduced form.
(15) And God said further to Moses, “Thus shall you speak to the Israelites”: In the end, however, calling the Almighty by His name “I will be” is not alone sufficient. The people must be given a more detailed elaboration.
The Lord, the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, has sent me to you: Here are a few of the Almighty’s characteristics, since the people will need a more detailed explanation.
The Lord: The Tetragrammaton, YHWH, is the absolute form of the verb howeh, “to be,” a combination, as it were, of all three tenses: past, present, and future. It is, in a sense, the timeless form of this verb: God as the ultimate Being of the entire universe.
The name Ehyeh, which looks to the future, must be supplemented with the Tetragrammaton, which speaks also of the present.
The God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob: This addendum indicates that our connection with God lies not only in our faith and in rarefied theological conceptions, but, more fundamentally, in our very physical existence. That connection through birth is incomparably more powerful than the connection that exists only at the level of ideas. The Almighty is here presented as the “God of the Patriarchs,” the progenitor and creator of the Jewish people.
The three Patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, are respectively associated with three aspects of the manifestation of Divinity: Chesed (Mercy), Gevurah (Might or Judgment), and Tiferet (Splendor) [44]. Our dialogue with God and our self-realization must embody those three directions of Divine ideals. The Almighty revealed Himself differently to each of our three Patriarchs, with each Patriarch symbolizing a separate aspect of Divinity. The words “the God of” is therefore repeated here alongside the name of each Patriarch individually. But our understanding of God should be based on the unification of all those aspects.
This shall be My name forever, this My appellation for all eternity: Literally, “and this is my remembrance in each and every generation.” How are name and remembrance to be contrasted? A name, directed toward the future, represents a goal. But memory turns to the past, to our experiences and the ideas that result from them.
Our understanding of God is connected with three Divine aspects: (1) the Lord– the Almighty’s four-letter name; (2) the God of our ancestors generally; (3) the God of the Patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. These are three levels of memory (i.e., remembrance).
God first tells Moses “This shall be My name forever,” corresponding to the first of God’s names just mentioned, “I will be, that which I will be,” which sets the goal and direction. Following that, “this My appellation for all eternity” is the formulation of a more detailed representation (the “pedagogical aspect”), as contained in the words “The God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.”
It should be noted that the opening passage of the Amidah, the central prayer of Jewish liturgy, addresses God using that same construction.
5.6. How God’s Message to the People Differs from His Message to Pharaoh (3:16-18)
(16) “Go and assemble the elders of Israel and say to them: the Lord, the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, has appeared to me and said, ‘I have taken note of you and of what is being done to you in Egypt,
(17) and I have declared: I will take you out of the misery of Egypt to the land of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites, to a land flowing with milk and honey.’
(18) They will listen to you; then you shall go with the elders of Israel to the king of Egypt and you shall say to him, ‘The Lord, the God of the Hebrews, manifested Himself to us. Now therefore, let us go a distance of three days into the wilderness to sacrifice to the Lord our God.’
(16) Go and assemble the elders of Israel and say to them: The elders must be persuaded first. While enslaved in Egypt no Jew could feel individual autonomy or independence. The chain of command was therefore of utmost importance to them – they obeyed their leadership.
We shall soon see that at the initial stage of the Exodus, the position of the Jewish “elders” poses a significant problem.
The Lord, the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob appeared to me and said … (17) … I will take you out of the misery of Egypt: When Moses addresses the Children of Israel, he must speak of “nationalist” considerations, viz., the Patriarchs, deliverance from slavery, and returning to the Land to lead happy, productive lives. Here we see a deep personal connection with God (“the Lord, the God of your fathers, appeared to me”), but there is no mention of the rituals that are observed in serving God.
And said, ‘I have taken note of you: These words, pakod pakadti, are an echo of the same words by which Joseph, before his death, foretold the future Exodus from Egypt (Genesis 50:24). Thus, this directive connects Moses with the national collective memory, and should help to persuade the elders.
(18) They will listen to you; then you shall go with the elders of Israel to the king of Egypt and you shall say to him, ‘The Lord, the God of the Hebrews, manifested Himself to us. Now therefore, let us go a distance of three days into the wilderness to sacrifice to the Lord our God.’: However, when Moses goes to Pharaoh with the elders (that is, he goes not merely as an individual, but accompanied by the appointed representatives of the people), they will need to present their request to Pharaoh in completely different – thoroughly religious – terms, as if their avowed purpose is strictly “ritual-ecclesiastical” – to offer sacrifices to the Jewish God.
Moreover, contact with God is here indicated by the use of a different term: “The Lord, the God of the Hebrews, manifested (nikrah) Himself to us,” which speaks not of a personal connection, but of establishing one-time contact with higher worlds [45]. This alteration is intentional: Pharaoh can more readily consent to a demand framed in those terms, which have the “feel” of typical Egyptian witchcraft.
In fact, both objectives are equally valid: the wording as originally communicated to the Jewish people, and also as later reworded for Pharaoh’s benefit. But we need to transmit to each receiver only that part of our message that he can hear and accept.
Pharaoh is unable to accept the nationalist message, but he accepts the religious message, namely, that everyone worships his own God, Who requires some semblance of services and rites. Pharaoh is prepared to respect the religious peculiarities of minorities, so if this is about a religious need, then he will allow it. But if the request is motivated by nationalism, then he can only take it as a personal insult: A substantial segment of the Egyptian population wants to abandon its Egyptian homeland.
Conversely, as concerns the Jews themselves, the ecclesiastical-ritual objective is not something that a nation striving for life in its own Land can easily identify with. But it would be a mistake to think that that desire is not also significant from a religious point of view. On the contrary, that desire demonstrates a very deep connection with God, as we shall see.
5.7. “I will stretch out My hand and smite Egypt” (3:19-21)
(19) Yet I know that the king of Egypt will let you go only because of a greater might.
(20) So I will stretch out My hand and smite Egypt with various wonders which I will work upon them; after that he shall let you go.
(21) And I will dispose the Egyptians favorably toward this people, so that when you go, you will not go away empty-handed.
(22) Each woman shall borrow from her neighbor and the lodger in her house objects of silver and gold, and clothing, and you shall put these on your sons and daughters, thus stripping the Egyptians.”
(19) Yet I know: God continues to persuade Moses of the need to create a chosen people from those Jews who are now in Egypt, explaining to him that the process of the Exodus will elevate the Jews and allow them to advance spiritually. God does this as a means of countering Moses’ doubts that the Jewish people in Egypt are at all capable of becoming the “chosen people.”
(19-20) Yet I know that the king of Egypt will let you go only because of a greater might. So I will stretch out My hand and smite Egypt: The Egyptian plagues were an integral part of the Exodus. They were necessary in order to destroy the foundations of Egyptian idolatry and determinism, so that the world would be able to accept the Jewish light in the future. But the plagues also served the purpose of demolishing the idolatrous notions residing in the minds of the Jews themselves (to “take Egypt out of the Jews”), thus enabling them to receive the Torah. And the justice of this path lies in the fact that the Egyptians were punished for oppressing the Jews.
(21) And I will dispose the Egyptians favorably toward this people: They will give you their gold and silver not out of the goodness of their hearts, but because the Almighty will force them to do so.
(22) So that when you go, you will not go away empty-handed. Each woman shall borrow from her neighbor … objects of silver and gold … thus stripping the Egyptians: God promised Abraham that the Jews would leave Egypt “with great wealth” (Gen. 15:14), and this means “stripping” Egypt, both spiritually and materially.
On the spiritual side: Egypt was the most highly developed civilization of that era, with an abundance of cultural and other achievements that needed to be preserved. Those achievements – as assimilated by the Jews according to their characteristically Jewish understanding and appreciation of them – became the spiritual assets that the Jews took with them upon leaving Egypt.
And on the material side: The gold and silver that the Jews received from the Egyptians were fair compensation for two hundred years of slave labor, and for the immovable property that the Jews left behind in Egypt [46].
The Jews were to leave Egypt not as indigent, downtrodden slaves, but as a wealthy, self-sufficient people. Because this transition demanded a completely revised worldview, it was very important for the psychological re-education of the Jews to acquire these material possessions.
(Note that a sense of material independence is important not only for a nation collectively, but also for its members individually. Torah law therefore requires that a Hebrew slave who goes free must be given a generous endowment upon his [or her] departure – Deut. 15:13-14.)
5.8. The First Sign: The Staff that Becomes a Serpent (4:1-5)
(1) But Moses spoke up and said, “What if they do not believe me and do not listen to me, but say: The Lord did not appear to you?”
(2) The Lord said to him, “What is that in your hand?” And he replied, “A rod.”
(3) He said, “Cast it on the ground.” He cast it on the ground and it became a snake; and Moses recoiled from it.
(4) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Put out your hand and grasp it by the tail” — he put out his hand and seized it, and it became a rod in his hand —
(5) “that they may believe that the Lord, the God of their fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, did appear to you“.
(1) But Moses spoke up and said, “What if they do not believe me and do not listen to me, but say: The Lord did not appear to you?”: But later, verse 31 states clearly that “the people were convinced” (literally, “the people believed”). Thus, Moses’ fears here were exaggerated.
Moreover, when in the wilderness Moses smites the rock with his staff in order to extract water from it (rather than just speaking to the rock, as God had commanded him to do), the Torah relates (Num. 20:12): “But the Lord said to Moses and Aaron, ‘Because you did not trust Me enough’ ” (literally, “because you did not believe in Me”). To which the Midrash adds: “The Jews, who Moses before the Exodus had feared would not believe him, did in fact believe. But Moses himself lacked faith at the moment when he smote the rock.”
In other words, the problem of insufficient faith lies with Moses, not with the people! We will examine more closely the issue of faith (and the lack thereof) in our commentary on the aforementioned verse of Numbers.
Moses expresses doubt that there is any hope of persuading the Jews, but in reality he cannot possibly predict what the people will say, and his repeated refusals are rooted in his own self-doubts regarding the mission proposed to him. The signs that the Almighty will now show Moses are therefore needed, first and foremost, not as a set of magical formulas for convincing the people, but for explicating the Exodus mission itself.
The purpose of the three signs that God is about to show Moses is to change, both for Moses and for the people to whom Moses will have to show these signs, the way they view the entire undertaking of the Exodus.
(2) The Lord said to him, “What is that in your hand?” And he replied, “A rod”: The lesson begins with Moses acknowledging his own status as a leader. Although the staff in a practical sense is simply the sign of his work as a shepherd, it is now also a symbol of Moses’ power and his leadership of the people.
(3-4) He said, “Cast it on the ground.” He cast it on the ground and it became a snake; and Moses recoiled from it. Then the Lord said to Moses, “Put out your hand and grasp it by the tail” — he put out his hand and seized it, and it became a rod in his hand: The serpent is a prominent symbol in Egyptian culture. The Pharaohs placed on their foreheads a Uraeus, which is a figurine of a serpent. But a serpent coils itself into a round shape, while a staff is always straight.
In this sign, Moses first holds in his hand a straight object. So long as he keeps it in his hand it remains straight - it is subordinated to him. But when Moses casts it to the ground, it becomes round, and also deadly, such that Moses must even “recoil” (literally, “flee”) from it. But then Moses finds that he is able to seize the snake by the tail, and it again becomes straight.
In the Kabbalah, roundness is understood as representing nature, which remains constant in every direction. That is, the laws of nature have no purpose or direction of their own (which is what the serpent symbolizes [47]).
But straightness, on the other hand, represents morality – Providence, Divine control of the world, which has a definite purpose and direction. Thus, the transformations here of staff to serpent and back again, between straightness and roundness, should be understood as the Almighty’s commentary to Moses on the relationship of morality to nature.
Thrown to the ground, taken from the hand of man, from civilization, the staff (which represents control) returns to nature by becoming a snake. Moses then flees from it, from the natural world that is alien to him. Moses’ space is the wilderness, in which there is little if any “animated life,” where God’s voice dominates. But the Almighty tells Moses that there is no need to flee from nature; that is, from Egypt in all its naturalness. Simply grab the snake by the tail, and it will again become a staff.
Moses yearns for the giving of the Torah, the gift of the Law from Above; not natural laws, but supernatural, transcendental teachings. But for the proper advancement of the world, unification of the Divine teachings with the natural world must occur. We should not be trying to escape from the natural world; rather, we must “grab the snake (nature) by its tail,” so that nature becomes morality – a staff that guides the life of the people. The staff of morality is effective only when it arises from the serpent of nature seized by the tail.
(5) That they may believe that the Lord, the God of their fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, did appear to you: This approach reinforces Moses’ connection with the Patriarchs, because the Patriarchs built their Divine teachings based on converting nature to morality, and not on the idea of a transcendental Divine Law descended from Heaven (which is what Moses values most). Thus, by giving Moses this sign God is saying: “That they may believe that the Lord, the God of their fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, did appear to you. If you yourself will feel it, then they too will believe you.”
Moses’ power over the serpent that he seizes will serve as evidence to the Jews that God has sent Moses to defeat Egypt.
5.9. The Second Sign: Moses’ Scaly Hand (4:6-7)
(6) The Lord said to him further, “Put your hand into your bosom.” He put his hand into his bosom; and when he took it out, his hand was encrusted with snowy scales!
(7) And He said, “Put your hand back into your bosom.” — He put his hand back into his bosom; and when he took it out of his bosom, there it was again like the rest of his body.
(6-7) His hand was encrusted with snowy scales! … there it was again like the rest of his body: Like the staff that became a serpent, the next sign, snowy scales (“leprosy”) on Moses’ hand, is directed both to Moses and to the Jews, to whom God here is instructing Moses to demonstrate these signs.
For Moses himself, leprosy might have been a punishment for speaking leshon hara – which means slander or malicious gossip [48]. Moses has clearly expressed his expectation that the Jews would not believe him, which can be seen as his having slandered the Jewish people (although the translation given at 4:1 is “What if they do not believe me and do not listen to me, but say: The Lord did not appear to you?", the more literal rendering is the much more emphatic: “But, behold, they will not believe me, nor hearken unto my voice; for they will say: The Lord did not appear to you”).
Be that as it may, the leprosy on Moses' hand is, at worst, localized and transitory – it quickly passes, because Moses’ words do not actually constitute “malicious slander,” for they are just an innocent mistake. Moses' fears that he would have difficulty establishing mutual understanding with the people were not completely groundless. But in the end, all the problems were resolved.
For the Jews, however, these signs symbolize Moses’ status as an intermediary standing between God and the people.
Leprosy is a sign of separation, of living in isolation from people (“Being unclean, [the leper] shall dwell apart; his dwelling shall be outside the camp", Lev. 13:46). But separation can be either negatively or positively motivated. Kings, for example, live separately from the people. Moses, too, throughout his life, from childhood and through old age, is largely separated from the Jewish people. He grew up in Pharaoh’s palace, then lived in Midian for an extended period, and remained distant from the people even after the Exodus. Moses will climb Mount Sinai while the people will have to wait below. Moreover, Moses’ tent will stand apart from all others (33:7).
Thus there is always a divide between Moses and the people. We might even say that Moses is a “half-leper” (half, because He nevertheless remains always in control; that is, a certain amount of contact between Moses and the people is maintained, just as his hand can be either affected by leprosy or fully healed of it).
Moses’ isolation from the people is one of the reasons that the Jews do not immediately believe him. But the sign of the half-leprous hand is meant to show the Jews that this isolation is positively motivated. Moses does truly stand between the Divine and the human, between two worlds. He is the medium through which the Divine teachings are transmitted to the people.
5.10. The Third Sign: Turning Water into Blood (4:8-9)
(8) “And if they do not believe you or pay heed to the first sign, they will believe the second.
(9) And if they are not convinced by both these signs and still do not heed you, take some water from the Nile and pour it on the dry ground, and it — the water that you take from the Nile — will turn to blood on the dry ground.”
(8-9) And if they do not believe you or pay heed to the first sign, they will believe the second. And if they are not convinced by both these signs … the water will turn to blood on the dry ground: These signs have two purposes. Besides demonstrating to the People that Moses is sent to them from “Above,” they are also supposed to stimulate the Jewish People to leave Egypt. Each one of these three signs is more compelling than the previous one in the degree that they motivate the Jewish nation to yearn for the Exodus. Belief in signs (and, in this case, reliance on Moses’ leadership) depends to a large extent on psychological attitude and the level of one’s desire to see a promise fulfilled.
For those Jews who are focused on leaving Egypt, the first sign is sufficient, in that it demonstrates that it is indeed possible to “seize the Egyptian snake by the tail.”
For those who doubt whether it even pays to leave Egypt, the second sign demonstrates that without taking the proper precautions a person can contract leprosy.
Finally, for those who are determined to remain in Egypt, and therefore refuse to believe the first two signs of the Redemption, turning the water of the Nile to blood demonstrates that there is no more “water” in Egypt. Water is the source of life. Thus, remaining in Egypt is not just pointless but downright dangerous. This third sign, in the end, will convince even this last group.
But for Moses himself, the lesson here lies in the idea that blood represents the attribute of judgment. The meaning of this sign of water turning to blood is that Moses must be prepared to lead the Jewish people with hardheaded fierceness when necessary, as his position of commander-in-chief of the nation will sometimes demand (indeed, the story of the Exodus entailed not only the death of the Egyptian firstborns and of Pharaoh and his army, brought about by the Almighty; Moses too was later called upon to order the execution of the Jews who had worshipped the golden calf).
5.11. “I am slow of speech and slow of tongue” (4:10-12)
(10) But Moses said to the Lord, “Please, O Lord, I have never been a man of words, either in times past or now that You have spoken to Your servant; I am slow of speech and slow of tongue.”
(11) And the Lord said to him, “Who gives man speech? Who makes him dumb or deaf, seeing or blind? Is it not I, the Lord?
(12) Now go, and I will be with you as you speak and will instruct you what to say.”
(10) But Moses said to the Lord, “Please, O Lord": Even after so much intense give-and-take between God and himself, Moses steadfastly continues to refuse the mission.
I have never been a man of words … I am slow of speech and slow of tongue: This does not mean, of course, that Moses is incapable of expressing himself clearly. The Torah quotes Moses again and again, and even records his lyric song on the shore of the Red Sea (15:1 ff.). Moreover, Moses at the very end of his life delivers an epic address, the entire book of Deuteronomy, whose name in Hebrew is Devarim, which means “Words.” It is thus clear that Moses can be “a man of words” after all. We will discuss this issue in detail – including Moses’ said transformation – in the introduction to our commentary on Deuteronomy.
Either in times past or now that You have spoken to Your servant: The literal translation is “Not only since yesterday, nor even the day before yesterday, nor even from the time that you first spoke to your servant.” The Midrash explains that for seven straight days God exhorted Moses to accept the mission of going to Egypt, but Moses adamantly refused.
I am slow of speech and slow of tongue: Here we see that when Moses says he has “never been a man of words,” there are actually two aspects to this: He is “slow of speech” (lips, mouth) and “slow of tongue.” Language exists at two distinct levels:
- Language as internal content, an instrument for expressing concepts (this is lashon, which means “language,” but also “tongue,” the organ of the mouth).
- Language as an external form of expression (this is safah, another word for “language,” which also means “lip”).
(See Bible Dynamics on Genesis, commentary to the story of the Tower of Babel [Gen 11:1 ff.] for further discussion).
In this verse, Moses is saying that he has difficulty with both of these aspects.
Rav A. I. Kook explains that we sometimes encounter a problem of self-expression at a high level, such that a person understands higher ideas, but is unable to express those ideas in images that someone else can understand. That is, he is “slow of tongue.”
A different problem occurs at a somewhat lower level, at which a non-verbal expression in a melody or image becomes possible, but words still fail, which means that the higher “slowness of tongue” has been overcome, but the person is still “slow of speech.” Only at a lower level does it become possible for the person to express his understanding in words.
(11-12) And the Lord said to him, “Who gives man speech? … I will be with you as you speak and will instruct you what to say”: Moses’ speech disorders are not a shortcoming, but a virtue. These impairments are necessary in order for the Torah to be faithfully transmitted through him. Under these circumstances, rather than embellishing God’s words with his own ideas, Moses will transmit neither more nor less than what the Almighty actually commands him to say.
5.12. Moses Receives His Brother Aaron as a Collaborator (4:13-17)
(13) But he said, “Please, O Lord, make someone else Your agent.”
(14) The Lord became angry with Moses, and He said, “There is your brother Aaron the Levite. He, I know, speaks readily. Even now he is setting out to meet you, and he will be happy to see you.
(15) You shall speak to him and put the words in his mouth — I will be with you and with him as you speak, and tell both of you what to do —
(16) and he shall speak for you to the people. Thus he shall serve as your spokesman, with you playing the role of God to him,
(17) And take with you this rod, with which you shall perform the signs.”
(13) But he said, “Please, O Lord, make someone else Your agent”: Once again Moses refuses the mission of leading the Exodus, but this time he offers no reason for his refusal. The point here is that the reasons Moses has given for his previous refusals, although they may have appeared reasonable, were essentially without merit. Rather, those refusals were due to Moses simply not wanting to lead the Jews out of Egypt.
(14) The Lord became angry with Moses: Until now, each time Moses refused the mission God would explain to him why he was wrong. But this time God uses a display of anger to impress upon Moses that an attitude adjustment is long overdue.
And He said, “There is your brother Aaron the Levite. He, I know, speaks readily”: Here we meet Moses’ brother Aaron for the first time, introduced from first mention as a prominent personality. He holds the position, as it were, of “Chief Rabbi of the Egyptian Jewish community.”
Aaron, unlike Moses, remained close to the people throughout his entire life. He was not raised in Pharaoh’s palace, nor did he spend many years in Midian. At the giving of the Torah, Aaron remained with the people at the foot of the mountain, and throughout the years in the wilderness he lived near the people. Aaron’s virtues and also his shortcomings all derive from this point. Because of his closeness to the people, Aaron has good communication with them, and can serve as an effective instrument for conveying Moses’ message to the people. But on the other hand, it is precisely Aaron’s closeness to the people that brings him to create the golden calf, thereby demonstrating that he is unworthy of becoming a national leader.
Even now he is setting out to meet you, and he will be happy to see you: Aaron’s most important quality is that he readily and willingly accepts Moses’ leadership, notwithstanding that Moses is his younger brother. We will consider this in greater detail below.
(15) You shall speak to him and put the words in his mouth — I will be with you and with him as you speak, and tell both of you what to do: Earlier (v. 12) God said to Moses, “I will be with you as you speak,” but now “I will be with you and with him as you speak, and tell both of you what to do.” At first it was assumed that Moses alone would lead the Exodus, but now the leadership will be divided between Moses and Aaron. This is a consequence of God’s anger over Moses’ repeated refusals.
(16) And he shall speak for you to the people. Thus he shall serve as your spokesman: Aaron does not stand on the same level as Moses. He is only an adjunct to Moses.
With you playing the role of God to him: Although the Hebrew word Elohim is one of God’s primary names, it can also refer more generally to a variety of other agents of superior authority. In particular, the word Elohim can be grammatically declined (which demonstrates that its meaning is relative, not absolute) and can also mean judges, heavenly powers, false gods, and the like. But as applied to the Almighty, this term is descriptive and impersonal, representing Him as the universally sovereign God [49].
Seen in that context, no deification of Moses is happening here; instead, his elevated status is emphasized. But even so, we find that in some aspects Moses was actually a “God” to the people. When Moses fails to return at the expected time from his forty days with God at the summit of Mount Sinai, the people “make a god” for themselves (in the form of the golden calf) to replace Moses, as they see it. We will examine this issue in greater detail below.
(17) And take with you this rod, with which you shall perform the signs: Moses must “not let the staff out of his hands,” he must maintain power, because without his leadership Aaron can easily be mistaken (which is what happened in the incident of the golden calf).
5.13. Why Did God Choose Only Moses for This Mission?
The Torah’s account of how God goes to such lengths to persuade Moses to accept the mission of leading the Exodus demonstrates that no one could substitute for Moses, because no one else in that generation was so well suited to become a national leader. The reason is not only Moses’ rare personal qualities (he is uncommonly righteous, humble, and actively committed), but also because only Moses had received the training that that mission required.
Moses combined three lines of self-identification: Jewish, Egyptian and Midianite. No other Jew of his generation had Moses’ broad outlook. A leader must see the world through the eyes of a free man. He must be a man of the world, and not a man of any one particular place.
Aaron is not in a position to lead the Exodus. He is accustomed to living with the Jews in slavery and supporting them in difficult times, but he has no understanding of how Egypt functions as a state, nor (what is all the more important for a leader) how the peoples of the world relate to one another, and how human development progresses.
Moses, raised as a free man in Pharaoh’s home, incorporates both Jewish and Egyptian perspectives. Through his years spent in Midian, observing the conflicts of states and of peoples from the sidelines, he acquired a new, universal outlook on the world. No other Jew of that era had that knowledge or understanding.
The leader who was to bring the Jews out of Egypt could not be just a slice of the people – he had to remain somewhat distant from them, in order to see into the future. Of all the Jews of that time, Moses was unique in having spent most of his life in the wider (i.e., non-Jewish) world, which afforded him a global perspective. Because the Exodus from Egypt is a world-class event, its leader must, on the one hand, be himself a representative element of the people, but on the other hand, be able to understand how a state operates and how it is governed. And finally, he must have a panhumanistic, universal perspective on the meaning of current events.
In other words, a Jewish leader must be a person who lives in all possible worlds at once. Moses was just such a person, which is why only he, and no one else, could lead the Jews out of Egypt.
This also means that the wheels of the Exodus were set in motion from the moment that Providence sent Moses to be reared and educated in Pharaoh’s palace, in preparation for his future role as the leader of a nation. Although every Jew considered Pharaoh’s order to throw newborn infants into the Nile a senseless, monstrous atrocity, that decree was in reality a necessary precursor to the Exodus (but this, needless to say, in no way negates or condones Pharaoh’s criminal actions).
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We find a modern analogy to this idea – the establishment of the necessary conditions for the creation of a leader – in the historical need for the assimilated Jew, Theodor Herzl, to arrive on the international Jewish scene. Herzl became the founder of the political Zionist movement that ultimately led to the creation of the State of Israel – the “Exodus” of our era. Even before Herzl there were rabbis who spoke of the need to resettle the Land of Israel and to create a Jewish state, but none of them envisioned accomplishing it through international conferences, media coverage, negotiations with world powers, and so on. Activities of this kind were extraordinary and incomprehensible to them. Traditional Jews were therefore, in principle, incapable of creating an effective Zionist movement.
We also note that according to the approach of the Gaon of Vilna, on whose writings the concept of religious Zionism is based, the era of Mashiach ben Yosef, “Messiah son of Joseph” – the era of the creation of the first stage of the Jewish state in the Land of Israel – began in the late eighteenth century. The Gaon of Vilna considered the French Revolution just such a “launch” of the Mashiach ben Yosef “platform,” because it brought the Jews out of isolation and made them full citizens of modern states, on the basis of which Zionism could gradually emerge, albeit only a full century later.
5.14. Moses and Aaron as Exemplars of Brotherhood
Aaron’s most important characteristic is that he rejoices that his younger brother has been chosen to lead the Exodus.
Fraternal relations are extremely complex. At the very dawn of human history, Cain murders his brother Abel. This tragedy was followed by repeated conflicts between brothers: Isaac and Ishmael, Jacob and Esau, Joseph and his brothers who sold him into slavery, and others. Throughout the history of mankind, fraternal relations have been one of the primary sources of conflict.
Conversely, it is brotherhood, ideally, that should become the foundation of human society, at the individual, national, and global levels. To achieve this, however, the human race, even now, has a very long way to go.
An older child usually finds it quite difficult to have a younger brother. For as long as he can remember he has been the sole object of his parents’ devotion – the entire world revolved only around him. But a new personality suddenly appears on the scene, and he is now no longer the one and only, but merely “one of.” In most cases an older child will experience considerable anxiety in relating to his younger brother.
The essential problem of brotherhood begins with just one simple but nagging question: “Why did you get more than I got?” Brothers also share a common inheritance, which is a major source of envy that can destroy a family, a society, and even a state.
Envy is a truly paradoxical phenomenon. While potentially extremely harmful, envy is at the same time the engine of progress. A man wants to have the same thing the other man has, because he envies him. This is a very powerful motivator. It depends only on us to decide whether we will direct that envy toward good or toward evil.
It is therefore impossible to solve the problem of brotherhood by completely rejecting this feeling of envy, and embracing “altruism” exclusively. Rather, the situation can be resolved only by redirecting the power of envy into constructive channels, by abandoning the drive for equality in favor of complementarity. There is no need to strive for sameness, no need to fret (“Why does he have what I don’t have?”). Brothers must acknowledge that they are simply smaller components of a larger whole, and they must take pleasure and pride in their common achievements. True brotherhood can exist only when brothers feel that together they share a common heritage, and that they complement each other, each contributing to the brotherhood their own unique qualities.
The level of brotherhood just described is the one that Aaron was able to achieve. “He will be happy to see you,” says God to Moses about Aaron (literally, “He will see you and rejoice in his heart”). A sense of complementarity is established between Moses and Aaron, rather than equality. Aaron is quite pleased with this arrangement and accepts Moses’ superiority. Such is the greatness of Aaron. It is what makes it possible for Moses and Aaron to lead the Jews out of Egypt. By rising to the level of true brotherhood, Moses and Aaron have corrected the sin of Cain and Abel.
This feeling of fraternal complementarity derives primarily from a sense of a common mission. For Moses and Aaron, this was the most important thing in their relationship, and it became the foundation for building brotherhood among the entire nation, and later among all of humanity.
Chapter 6. On the Road to Egypt
6.1. Moses Leaves His Father-in-Law Jethro (4:18)
(18) Moses went back to his father-in-law Jether and said to him, “Let me go back to my kinsmen in Egypt and see how they are faring.” And Jethro said to Moses, “Go in peace.”
(18) Moses went back to his father-in-law Jether and said to him: Moses asks Jethro’s permission to leave for Egypt, because his new mission requires that he revise all his previous plans, which were the reason that Moses had come to live with Jethro in the first place.
And see how they are faring: Literally, “And I will see whether they are still alive.” Moses does not doubt that the Jews in Egypt are still physically alive, but he doubts whether they are still spiritually alive. Does there remain in them anything of actual value? Moses has now agreed that the Jews must be brought out of Egypt, and that the future should be built only from these people, rather than trying to create an entirely new nation. But Moses is not yet ready to admit that there is anything spiritually important in these Jews that must be maintained and further developed.
And Jethro said to Moses, “Go in peace”: Jethro consents to Moses’ change of plan for the sake of fulfilling his new mission, although it was a major departure from Jethro’s own original plans. As noted earlier (see 4.4), the expression “Moses was tending the flock of his father-in-law Jethro” referred also to the “shepherding” of Jethro’s disciples. Jethro regarded Moses as the heir to his life’s work. By virtue of this concession, Jethro will later merit being a participant in the giving of the Torah on Mount Sinai.
6.2. Moses Leaves Midian (4:19-23)
(19) The Lord said to Moses in Midian, “Go back to Egypt, for all the men who sought to kill you are dead.”
(20) So Moses took his wife and sons, mounted them on an ass, and went back to the land of Egypt; and Moses took the rod of God with him.
(21) And the Lord said to Moses, “When you return to Egypt, see that you perform before Pharaoh all the marvels that I have put within your power. I, however, will stiffen his heart so that he will not let the people go.
(22) Then you shall say to Pharaoh, ‘Thus says the Lord: Israel is My first-born son.
(23) I have said to you, “Let My son go, that he may worship Me,” yet you refuse to let him go. Now I will slay your first-born son.’ ”
(19) The Lord said to Moses in Midian: In this passage Moses’ departure from Midian is recounted anew, but from a completely different perspective. At first it was told from the internal point of view - Moses’ doubts and the problems he faced. But the description here is from the external point of view, as the surrounding world sees it.
“Go back to Egypt, for all the men who sought to kill you are dead.”: From the outside it seems that Moses fled from Egypt because he was in grave danger for having killed the Egyptian overseer. And that he was always waiting for an opportunity to return there, just as soon as opportunity to do so would present itself.
(20) So Moses took his wife and sons … and went back to the land of Egypt: It would appear that Moses, after he had created a family in Midian, originally had no plans of remaining there.
And Moses took the rod of God with him: As seen from the outside, this gives the impression that immediately upon receiving God’s instruction to assume the role of leader, Moses accepted the mission with no doubts or hesitation whatsoever.
(21) And the Lord said to Moses, “When you return to Egypt, see that you perform before Pharaoh all the marvels that I have put within your power: There is no mention here of signs for the Jews, but only marvels for Pharaoh. That is, there is no trace of Moses' serious doubts concerning the Jews in Egypt and what they are prepared to believe.
I, however, will stiffen his heart so that he will not let the people go: Pharaoh’s adamant, protracted refusal to allow the Exodus to happen was presented earlier (3:19) as a necessary step for destroying the Egyptian worldview by means of plagues, to “take Egypt out of the Jews.” Indeed, that is the internal view of the goings-on. But from the outside it appears to be a pretext for punishing Pharaoh.
When God’s stiffens Pharaoh’s heart, this by no means deprives him of his freedom of choice. On the contrary, as the plagues progress he can avoid panicking, and continue to decide freely how to react.
(22) Then you shall say to Pharaoh, “Thus says the Lord: Israel is My first-born son”: The Exodus is essentially a struggle for the primacy of Israel vs. Egypt: Who will lead the future development of mankind? We will address this point in greater detail below.
Israel is My first-born son: The paternal aspect of God’s relationship to man is inherent in Judaism from the very beginning. God, in relation to all people, is Creator, Lord, and Father. But this finds its absolute expression only in those individuals, nations, and cultures who themselves regard God as their father and behave toward Him like sons. In times to come, however, after all nations master the pure language of communication with God and recognize the Almighty, all people will become children of God in absolute form (Zeph. 3:9).
But even in that future era, Israel will remain “God’s firstborn son,” because it is Israel who first accepted God as their Heavenly Father. Even then, God's connection with Israel will be realized at a higher level than that of other nations. Although all sons share in their father’s inheritance, the firstborn receives a double portion and enjoys a special status.
(23) I have said to you, “Let My son go, that he may worship Me”: The departure of the Jews is presented to Pharaoh as necessary for the performance of a religious ritual as required by God. There is no mention of the Patriarchs or the Promised Land.
Yet you refuse to let him go. Now I will slay your first-born son: In the “external view,” Pharaoh is seen as doomed from the very beginning. God himself hardens Pharaoh’s heart so that he will not allow the Jews to leave, and then God punishes Pharaoh for that! Thus, the purpose of the entire exercise is to show the world that Pharaoh has forfeited his status as an independent world leader. That is, Egypt’s leading role in world history is no more, and supremacy on the world stage now passes to Israel.
6.3. The Incident of Circumcision at the Night Encampment (4:24-26)
(24) At a night encampment on the way, the Lord encountered him and sought to kill him.
(25) So Zipporah took a flint and cut off her son’s foreskin, and touched his legs with it, saying, “You are truly a bridegroom of blood to me!”
(26) And when He let him alone, she added, “A bridegroom of blood because of the circumcision.”
(24) At a night encampment on the way: This is a very difficult passage. We will offer just one of various options for understanding it.
The Lord encountered him and sought to kill him: Because no reason is given, it is natural to conclude that this is somehow related to the “night encampment” (literally, “inn”). The Midrash (see below) understands the Torah’s explicit mention of the overnight as indicating some delay on Moses’ part. When he stopped for the night, Moses could have performed his son’s circumcision then and there, but he failed to do so. However, we can also understand the overnight stay on the road as meaning that the initial stage of God’s elaborations to Moses is complete, and the Almighty therefore now proceeds to the second stage.
(25) So Zipporah took a flint and cut off her son’s foreskin: We were informed earlier that Zipporah bore Moses a son, who was given the name “Gershom” (2:22). But here Moses and Zipporah already have two sons (“So Moses took his wife and sons,” v. 20). And later we learn that the second son was named “Eliezer” (18:4).
According to the Midrash, Moses’ second son was born just before Moses left Midian to return to Egypt. Moses had not circumcised his son because the stress of road travel poses a danger to an infant, and circumcision in such situations must therefore be postponed. But once Moses had stopped for the night (“At a night encampment on the way”) his first duty was to circumcise his son, and this delay was the reason for the near-tragedy that ensued.
And touched his legs with it: Moses himself was unable to take any action, probably because he was near death at that point.
Saying, “You are truly a bridegroom of blood to me!”: Zipporah’s connection to Moses, previously due primarily to Moses’ status as heir to her father Jethro’s spiritual legacy, is now transformed into a connection of blood; that is, a connection rooted in a physical reality.
(26) And when He let him alone: Moses is now recovering.
She added, “A bridegroom of blood because of the circumcision”: The conclusion we are to draw from this is that circumcision is one of the central foundations of all Jewish existence.
One of various options for understanding this passage is:
As mentioned earlier, the Midrash believes that the cause of these events was Moses’ delay in circumcising his son. But the question then becomes: If Moses could neglect performing circumcision, a commandment of paramount importance in Judaism already for hundreds of years since Abraham’s time, then what kind of national leader is Moses fit to become? But if, on the other hand, Moses was justified in postponing his son’s circumcision, why, then, did God want to kill him?
As already noted above [50], this passage becomes clear when understood in the context of the ideas of Rabbi I. L. Ashkenazi (Manitou), which consider the dynamics of Moses’s personality on two covenantal levels: the Abrahamic covenant (God’s covenant with the Patriarchs), and the Sinai covenant between God and the nation of Israel that left Egypt.
The essence of Abraham’s covenant is to unite the ideals of mercy and justice (Gen. 18:19) [51], and to see the Jewish people as a family that has a direct connection with God, through its existence as an autonomous nation living in its own Land. However, this covenant includes no formalized system of commandments.
The Sinai covenant, on the other hand, is a covenant of laws and commandments that regulate the life of the Jewish people as a society (and not merely a family). It is this kind of covenant that resonates with Moses’ personal inclinations and character.
Circumcision is a component of both of those covenants, but its meaning is different in each. In the Sinai covenant, circumcision is, essentially, one of the Torah’s many (613) commandments. But in Abraham’s covenant, circumcision is a symbol of the covenant itself (we note in passing that this is why the accepted Hebrew term for circumcision is Brit Milah, “The Covenant of Circumcision.” No other commandment in the Torah has the word brit, “covenant", prefixed to its name [52]).
By assuming the role of leader of the Exodus, Moses has agreed to lead the descendants of the Patriarchs out of Egypt. But he is still not feeling or acknowledging the importance of the Abrahamic covenant. When Moses goes to Egypt to bring the Jewish people out, and to enter them into the Sinai covenant (“And when you have freed the people from Egypt, you shall worship God at this mountain,” 3:12), he already feels himself a part of the new, Sinai covenant, and has no desire to enter his newborn son into Abraham's covenant.
This does not mean that Moses is actually neglecting the commandment of circumcision. He simply considers it one of the many Sinai commandments, and expects to circumcise his son simultaneously with the rest of the Jewish people as a strict prerequisite (12:48) to performing the first Passover sacrifice on the eve of the Exodus from Egypt.
In other words, Moses makes a clear distinction between the Sinai covenant and the covenant of the Patriarchs.
Moses considers the “covenant of ideals” weak and ineffective, and seeks to replace it with the “covenant of commandments,” which establishes objective laws and explicit norms. Moses has already decided that the new covenant will supplant the former. This is not negligence or indifference on Moses’ part, but merely the innocent mistake of a great man.
God tells Moses in response: “If that is how you feel, then you deserve to die. The Sinai covenant will complement the Abrahamic covenant, but cannot replace or abolish it. The ideals of the Patriarchs are primary. They are the goal, and the Sinai commandments are only a tool for implementing them. Without this connection, it makes no sense for you even to lead the Jews out of Egypt.” And if so, then Moses’ life also makes no sense, and he must die.
Moses’ wife Zipporah, who comes from Midian, maintains a connection with the heritage of Abraham, which enables her to act here in opposition to Moses and as a counterbalance to him. Thanks to Zipporah’s background, she understands the problem and circumcises their son, thereby saving Moses’ life [53].
The mistake of separating the commandments from the ideals they are intended to support, by falsely absolutizing those commandments, has been an important problem in Judaism for many centuries, and continues to be so even in our time. If Judaism is to live and develop in our generation, it is critical that we not repeat Moses’ mistake.
In his two lessons to Moses – at the Burning Bush, and in the incident of his son’s circumcision – God showed Moses that he would only be continuing Abraham’s work, both physically and spiritually. Founding an entirely new nation was not at all a part of God’s plan. Divine revelation did not begin at Sinai, it only continued there. The life of the Jewish people did not begin at Sinai. It began with Abraham.
Chapter 7. The First Meeting with Pharaoh
7.1. Jews are ready to recognize Moses as their redeemer (4: 27-31)
(27) The Lord said to Aaron, “Go to meet Moses in the wilderness.” He went and met him at the mountain of God, and he kissed him.
(28) Moses told Aaron about all the things that the Lord had committed to him and all the signs about which He had instructed him.
(29) Then Moses and Aaron went and assembled all the elders of the Israelites.
(30) Aaron repeated all the words that the Lord had spoken to Moses, and he performed the signs in the sight of the people,
(31) and the people were convinced. When they heard that the Lord had taken note of the Israelites and that He had seen their plight, they bowed low in homage.
(27) The Lord said to Aaron, “Go to meet Moses in the wilderness.” He went: We see that Aaron is not himself enslaved, and can freely leave Egypt.
And met him at the mountain of God: The meeting takes place on Mount Horeb (Sinai), indicating not only that the giving of the Torah is of central importance in the Exodus process, but that Aaron will share in the mission entrusted to Moses by God at the Burning Bush.
And he kissed him: The prediction that Aaron would rejoice to know that his younger brother had been chosen to lead the Exodus is now confirmed.
(28) Moses told Aaron about all the things that the Lord had committed to him and all the signs about which He had instructed him: We see here once again that Moses has no actual problem expressing himself in words. When Moses describes himself as “slow of speech and slow of tongue” (4:10), he means something entirely different.
(29) Then Moses and Aaron went and assembled all the elders of the Israelites: Moses could not have gathered the elders himself. For this he needs to have Aaron with him, whose authority the elders acknowledge.
(30) Aaron repeated all the words that the Lord had spoken to Moses, and he performed the signs in the sight of the people: Moses no longer speaks. He only performs the signs, and Aaron speaks for him.
(30-31) He performed the signs in the sight of the people, and the people were convinced: There is a sudden transition from the elders to the people. It seems that the elders would not accept Moses’ message, and Aaron and Moses were forced to address the people directly.
And the people were convinced: (literally, “The people believed”). The Jews recognize Moses as the agent of their long-awaited deliverance, which means that Moses now has the status of a national leader.
We noted earlier (4:1) that Moses’ fears that the Jews would not believe him were unfounded. The people believed (but as concerns the signs that God gave Moses and Moses demonstrated to the people, the Torah does not tell us whether the people would have believed even without those signs).
(31) When they heard that the Lord had taken note of the Israelites and that He had seen their plight, they bowed low in homage: The Jews heard and took note, first of all, of the words about deliverance from suffering. Slavery is so difficult to endure that the Israelites were simply not able to focus on anything else. And therefore, as we shall note later, the first stage of the liberation, six months before the Exodus, was the cessation of slave labor and the hardships associated with it, which occurred on Rosh Hashanah – Jewish New Year.
7.2. The First Audience with Pharaoh (5:1-4)
(1) Afterward Moses and Aaron went and said to Pharaoh, “Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel: Let My people go that they may celebrate a festival for Me in the wilderness.”
(2) But Pharaoh said, “Who is the Lord that I should heed Him and let Israel go? I do not know the Lord, nor will I let Israel go.”
(3) They answered, “The God of the Hebrews has manifested Himself to us. Let us go, we pray, a distance of three days into the wilderness to sacrifice to the Lord our God, lest He strike us with pestilence or sword.”
(4) But the king of Egypt said to them, “Moses and Aaron, why do you distract the people from their tasks? Get to your labors!”
(1) Afterward Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh: Earlier (3:18) the Almighty had told Moses: “Then you shall go with the elders of Israel to the king of Egypt,” but here there is no mention of the elders. The elders were apparently afraid to go to Pharaoh with Moses and Aaron, and Pharaoh therefore saw Moses and Aaron merely as lone citizens having no real constituency among the people, which immediately undermined the cogency of their arguments and demands.
And said to Pharaoh: “Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel: Let My people go that they may celebrate a festival for Me in the wilderness”: Moses and Aaron couch their demand in terms of a ritual for fulfilling a religious obligation, rather than an exigency of national-political character. But on the other hand, they do mention that the celebration is on behalf of the “God of Israel,” which nonetheless imparts to it a certain nationalist aspect.
(2) But Pharaoh said, “Who is the Lord that I should heed Him and let Israel go? I do not know the Lord, nor will I let Israel go”: When two unknowns presumptuously request an audience with Pharaoh, he does not have them arrested or summarily ejected, as we might expect, but instead asks them, “Why should I obey this God of yours, given that I have no idea who He is? If you have come with a demand, it is only right that you should justify it.” It seems that Pharaoh is being honest here – he genuinely wants to understand the Jews’ demands.
(3) They answered, “The God of the Hebrews has manifested Himself to us. Let us go, we pray, a distance of three days into the wilderness to sacrifice to the Lord our God”: Wishing to reach an understanding with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron transition to a more understandable terminology: “The God of the ivrim, 'Hebrews', the descendants of Eber” [54]. This is a more familiar concept to Pharaoh than “The Lord, the God of Israel,” as they referred to Him earlier. The ivrim are a recognized ethnic group. The “God of the Hebrews” is associated with a traditional, established religion, and should be respected. However, an appeal to Eber is still not a justification for leaving Egypt. The Jews can worship the “God of the Hebrews” right there in Egypt. There is no need for them to go out into the wilderness for that.
The Jews mission to the world operates at two distinct levels: The “national” mission, as formulated by the Patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (aka Israel), and the archetypal mission, as formulated by the “original Patriarchs” – Noah, Shem, and Eber. These two missions, the mission of the Children of Israel and the mission of the descendants of Eber (ivrim, Hebrews), respectively, are significantly different.
From the perspective of those “original Patriarchs,” the Jewish mission consists in the descendants and followers of Eber, the Hebrews, being scattered among the nations of the world in order to bring them the message of monotheism. Abraham’s later innovation was that his descendants (and those who joined them) would remain a separate people [55]. The statement “Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel” is made at the national level, and it means: “We, Israel, are a foreign body with respect to Egypt.”
Israel's religious cult is so obviously different from that of Egypt that it is impossible to properly implement it in Egypt – hence the Jews demand of Pharaoh, “Let us go, we pray, a distance of three days into the wilderness to sacrifice to the Lord our God.” Pharaoh, however, is not prepared to accept this approach, because he does not know and does not recognize the “God of Israel.”
When Moses tells Pharaoh, “Our service to God is the service of the descendants of Eber, which you cannot but know,” Pharaoh answers: “Yes, indeed, of course I know all about the service of the descendants of Eber, and I recognize it as legitimate. But that service can be performed anywhere. It does not require that you leave Egypt.”
Lest He strike us with pestilence or sword: This is a euphemistic turn of phrase, a more polite substitute for: “If you won’t allow us to go, He will surely strike you with pestilence or sword.” But even this could not bring the desired result.
(4) But the king of Egypt said to them, “Moses and Aaron, why do you distract the people from their tasks? Get to your labors!”: Since the representatives of the people did not come with you, and you came alone, this means that the people do not really want to leave Egypt. Thus, you are only distracting them from their tasks. And since this is not even an actual demand of the people, but only your own attempt to incite a rebellion, stepping up the oppression is the surest way I know to make the Jews forget about any other unreasonable demands they might have.
7.3. The Jews Scatter Throughout Egypt (5:5-12)
(5) And Pharaoh continued, “The people of the land are already so numerous, and you would have them cease from their labors!”
(6) That same day Pharaoh charged the taskmasters and foremen of the people, saying,
(7) “You shall no longer provide the people with straw for making bricks as heretofore; let them go and gather straw for themselves.
(8) But impose upon them the same quota of bricks as they have been making heretofore; do not reduce it, for they are shirkers; that is why they cry, ‘Let us go and sacrifice to our God!’
(9) Let heavier work be laid upon the men; let them keep at it and not pay attention to deceitful promises.”
(10) So the taskmasters and foremen of the people went out and said to the people, “Thus says Pharaoh: I will not give you any straw.
(11) You must go and get the straw yourselves wherever you can find it; but there shall be no decrease whatever in your work.”
(12) Then the people scattered throughout the land of Egypt to gather stubble for straw.
(5) And Pharaoh continued, “The people of the land are already so numerous, and you would have them cease from their labors!”: Pharaoh sees the Jews as just a component of the larger Egyptian nation. And, apparently, this was also the self-perception of a large segment of the Jews themselves.
(6) That same day Pharaoh charged the taskmasters and foremen: Pharaoh acts according to his own logic: the ferment that has begun must be suppressed, best accomplished by overloading the people with work such that they will have no time or energy for anything else. Pharaoh rules Egypt autocratically. By all appearances he is in full control of the situation and his instructions are reasonable.
In reality, however, Pharaoh’s actions occasion a completely unforeseen result: (1) The intensification of oppression dissuades even high-ranking, loyal Jews from their fealty to Egypt, and prepares the ground for just the right moment when all the people will be ready to break from Egypt psychologically, and to leave it physically; (2) The Jews are now widely scattered throughout all of Egypt, which is essential for imbuing them with an enhanced appreciation of the achievements of Egyptian civilization. This is an important element in preparing them for the Exodus (see §12.2).
The taskmasters and foremen of the people: The taskmasters are the Egyptian overseers, and the foremen are the Jewish superintendents, who occupy a supervisory position among the people.
This group is apparently associated with the “elders” mentioned earlier, who at the first stage refused to support Moses. From this we can infer that the Jewish elite in Egypt enjoyed a relatively privileged status, and at first had no interest whatsoever in the Exodus. This group was forced to change its attitude only when, as events turned out, the oppression began to affect them as well. All this served as a foundation for consolidating the people, a prerequisite for a successful Exodus.
(10) So the taskmasters and foremen of the people went out and said to the people: They did so after their meeting with Pharaoh. The fact that they had been invited to an exclusive audience with Pharaoh was a clear sign that he was seriously concerned.
(12) Then the people scattered throughout the land of Egypt: This was an important (and unplanned) consequence of the measures that Pharaoh had taken. Although the Torah told us previously that “the land was filled with them” (1:7), the bulk of the Jews continued to live in Egypt’s “Pale of Settlement,” in Goshen. The requirement that the Jews now collect their own straw led to their being scattered throughout Egypt. This step was a necessary prerequisite for the Exodus, because the Jews, before their departure, had to extract sparks of holiness [56] from all of Egypt, and not only from the land of Goshen.
If the objective in a given era is to preserve the Jewish people in exile, then it is better for them to live apart from the general population, away from the capital, in small towns. But for the purpose of “extracting worldly sparks from the exile” it is necessary that, on the contrary, the Jews will settle in all the big cities and actively participate in the life of their country. Paradoxically, then, the walls of the ghetto must collapse shortly before the Exodus in order that the Jews will spread throughout the country and assimilate its achievements for further application in their own lives.
Something similar happened during the creation of the modern State of Israel. For the nearly two thousand years of their exile, the Jews had lived apart from the surrounding nations. And then, only in the final century and a half, before the need for the Jews to leave Europe was ripe (and beginning with the French Revolution), the walls of the ghetto and the “Pale of Settlement” disintegrated everywhere, and the Jews began to participate in the life of their countries of residence.
This was an historical necessity for creating the future State of Israel. It was essential that the Jews would bring European culture – science, public administration skills, and so on – to the country they were about to resurrect. There is no way the Jews could have brought all that directly from their small villages and ghettos. Moreover, when a person is raised not on the periphery, but in the center of life, where everything seethes and is in constant motion, he sees the world in a completely different way [57].
The Jews in Egypt before the Exodus underwent a similar process. In order to ensure the Jews’ preservation as a distinct group, it was originally important for them to be living in the land of Goshen, apart from the Egyptians. But when the time for the Exodus drew near, Providence arranged for the Jews to disperse throughout the country, because they had to master Egypt’s achievements in order to be capable later of building their own state.
7.4. Intensification of the Oppression: The Israelite Foremen are Beaten (5:13-18)
(13) And the taskmasters pressed them, saying, “You must complete the same work assignment each day as when you had straw.”
(14) And the foremen of the Israelites, whom Pharaoh’s taskmasters had set over them, were beaten. “Why,” they were asked, “did you not complete the prescribed amount of bricks, either yesterday or today, as you did before?”
(15) Then the foremen of the Israelites came to Pharaoh and cried: “Why do you deal thus with your servants?
(16) No straw is issued to your servants, yet they demand of us: Make bricks! Thus your servants are being beaten, when the fault is with your own people.”
(17) He replied, “You are shirkers, shirkers! That is why you say, ‘Let us go and sacrifice to the Lord.’
(18) Be off now to your work! No straw shall be issued to you, but you must produce your quota of bricks!”
(13-14) And the taskmasters pressed them … And the foremen of the Israelites … were beaten: A conflict now arises between the Egyptian taskmasters and the Jewish foremen. Until now (v. 10), those two groups together had been managing the Jewish work effort, and the foremen remained loyal to Egypt. These foremen, motivated more by class distinctions than by national self-identification, felt that they had more in common with the Egyptian oppressors than with the Jewish oppressed, although the latter were closer to them as a matter of national origin.
But in order to expedite the Exodus it was necessary for the Jewish elite to turn its back on Egypt and want to leave it. They, too, had to begin to feel that their national roots were stronger than their class ties. These most recent persecutions by Pharaoh served precisely this purpose – to distance the Jewish elite from the Egyptians.
(15-16) Then the foremen of the Israelites came to Pharaoh and cried: “Why do you deal thus with your servants? … Thus your servants are being beaten, when the fault is with your own people”: The Jewish elite’s loyalty to Egypt has been undermined, but not yet completely. They are still hoping that (as the saying goes) if the nobility has let them down, they can still count on the king (Pharaoh) himself.
(17-18) He replied, “You are shirkers, shirkers! … Be off now to your work! No straw shall be issued to you, but you must produce your quota of bricks!”: The Jewish elite were deceived in their expectations, for it now turns out that Pharaoh too is malevolent. This now inclines them even more to embracing the Exodus.
7.5. The Crisis of Moses and the Foremen (5:19 – 6:1)
(19) Now the foremen of the Israelites found themselves in trouble because of the order, “You must not reduce your daily quantity of bricks.”
(20) As they left Pharaoh’s presence, they came upon Moses and Aaron standing in their path,
(21) and they said to them, “May the Lord look upon you and punish you for making us loathsome to Pharaoh and his courtiers — putting a sword in their hands to slay us.”
(22) Then Moses returned to the Lord and said, “O Lord, why did You bring harm upon this people? Why did You send me?
(23) Ever since I came to Pharaoh to speak in Your name, he has dealt worse with this people; and still You have not delivered Your people.”
(6:1) Then the Lord said to Moses, “You shall soon see what I will do to Pharaoh: he shall let them go because of a greater might; indeed, because of a greater might he shall drive them from his land.”
(19) Now the foremen of the Israelites found themselves in trouble because of the order, “You must not reduce your daily quantity of bricks”: Things have now quickly gone from bad to worse not just for the ordinary people, but for the foremen, high-ranking Jews, as well. As their eyes are opened to this reality, they too will want to leave Egypt.
(20) As they left Pharaoh’s presence, they came upon Moses and Aaron standing in their path: To their thinking, Moses and Aaron were nothing more than adversaries “standing in their path.” Moses and Aaron had demanded of Pharaoh that the Jews be allowed to leave, but the Jewish elite had no need for any such thing. And now the elite too is being oppressed for reasons that, at best, and as they see it, have nothing to do with them.
(21) And they said to them, “May the Lord look upon you and punish you for making us loathsome to Pharaoh and his courtiers — putting a sword in their hands to slay us”: The foremen lay all the blame at the feet of Moses an Aaron, while they appear to find no fault at all with Pharaoh himself, nor with his deputies.
Putting a sword in their hands to slay us: The foremen here use expressions similar to those employed by the two quarreling Jews who accused Moses, when at the very beginning of his journey he tried to intervene in their altercation: “Do you mean to kill me as you killed the Egyptian?” (2:14). The situation here is quite similar: Moses tries to act for the benefit of the people, but for all his good intentions he receives only blame. This too is a test for Moses, who once before became so disillusioned with the Jews because of just such accusations that he fled to a new life in a different country.
(22-23) Then Moses returned to the Lord and said, “O Lord”: The commentators on this verse emphasize that Moses' choice of this particular Divine name (“O, Lord”) expresses his utter bewilderment. A slave at a loss to understand his master’s intentions will address the master in this way.
Why did You bring harm upon this people? … Pharaoh has dealt worse with this people … You have not delivered Your people”: This time around Moses does not blame the Jews, as he did in his youth, nor does he blame those who have quarreled with him, not to mention finding fault with the entire Jewish nation. He now cares only about what is best for the people. This shows how much Moses has already changed, even at this stage.
(6:1) Then the Lord said to Moses: This is God’s answer to Moses’ question, why is it necessary that Pharaoh step up the oppression? The Almighty answers Moses: “It is necessary for your own education, and also for educating the people.”
You shall soon see: Literally, “Now you shall see.” The Midrash puts the stress on “now.” It is precisely Moses’ new and improved situation that will allow him to see. Moses needed once again to experience a crisis in his perception of the Jews, similar to the crisis he had faced in his youth, in order to understand that this time, in contrast to what had happened then, everything was developing quite correctly.
He shall let them go because of a greater might: That is, under duress. God will force Pharaoh to let the Jews go against his will.
Indeed, because of a greater might he shall drive them from his land: But at the same time, the Jews themselves will not just pick up and leave of their own free will. They, too, will be forced to leave, because Pharaoh and the Egyptians will drive them out.
Intensifying the oppression was a necessary step. The plagues that will begin are intended to influence not only Pharaoh, but the Jews as well, to make them want to leave Egypt and rebuild their lives. Crises and conflicts are indispensable for educating nations, just as extreme heat is necessary for smelting metal.
Chapter 8. Preparing for the Showdown with Egypt
8.1. Preparing for the Exodus: The “Aaron” Aspect
The Va’era portion continues the description of preparations for the Exodus. The Shemot portion was devoted to “internal” preparations – the story of Moses. And now this portion, Va’era, presents the Exodus as seen from Aaron’s perspective, who is observing the preparations “from the outside.”
In the previous portion, Shemot, God is not yet revealed to the world. He speaks there only with Moses himself. But in this portion, Va’era, the God is revealed to the outside world. This point is reflected in the very name of the portion, Va’era, which means “I (God) appeared,” i.e., I manifested to the outside world.
Moses is responsible for the internals, for receiving the Divine word from Heaven. Aaron is responsible for the externals – the “interface” – transmitting the Divine word to a wider circle. God’s revelation to Egypt, to which this Va’era portion is dedicated, is an “Aaronic,” rather than a “Mosaic,” theme.
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As already noted earlier, at the national level (the people as a whole) the Almighty revealed Himself first to the Egyptians, as expressed in the Ten Plagues. God’s Revelation to the Jews occurred only much later, through the Ten Commandments, at Sinai.
The Midrash sees a connection between the Ten Plagues, the Ten Commandments, and the Ten Utterances by which God created the world (Mishnah, Ethics of the Fathers, 5:1). The trajectory of the world’s development according the Midrash is as follows.
The effect of the Ten Utterances of Creation, as enumerated in the first chapter of Genesis, is to conceal God’s presence (the essence of all of Creation is concealment. God does not manifest clearly in the visible world, because He wants us to earn our self-sufficiency and independence in this world).
The time of Revelation arrives when in this world, which until now has concealed God’s presence, an expression of God’s unobscured presence suddenly arises, to be realized in two separate stages. In the case of the Exodus, God first sends the Ten Plagues, whose purpose is to demolish the dominant belief system. Following that, the second stage is the giving of the Ten Commandments, which creates an entirely new belief system. Thus, God’s revelation to the Egyptians is a Revelation that destroys the antiquated, obsolete model of the universe.
Egypt was overly confident in the stability and regularity of life’s natural processes. The Nile consistently overflows, there is always a crop, all phenomena in the world are subordinated and subjugated to one another. Freedom is entirely absent, and that sense of the lack of freedom in the world is then also projected onto Egyptian society. Egypt is the “house of bondage” (20:2), the land where all are slaves: Ordinary citizens are slaves to the nobility, the nobility are slaves to Pharaoh, Pharaoh is a slave to the gods, and the gods are slaves to nature.
The Ten Plagues ravaged this static order. The result was that a “mixed multitude” of Egyptians (12:38) joined the Jewish people and left Egypt with them. This was yetziat mitzrayim – not only, as conventionally translated, the “Exodus from Egypt,” but, even more literally, the “exodus of Egypt.” Egypt will itself abandon its former ideas and adopt the Jewish worldview. This “Exodus of Egypt” was not universal; only a small part of the Egyptian people participated in it, but it too was highly essential for realizing the goals of the Exodus.
The Ten Utterances by which God created the world are an instrument of Creation, but the Ten Commandments are an instrument of Revelation. Between Creation and Revelation stands Egypt, whose people worship the laws of nature, which is purely physical, has no freedom, no individual identity, and no purpose.
The Egyptians will not allow the Jews to leave, because, in their perception, there is no such thing as freedom, and there must never be.
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On a different but related note, it bears pointing out that not one of the first nine plagues was brought to its actual conclusion. Since Pharaoh was prepared to make concessions, Moses arranged to halt each of those plagues before it came to that. The reason was that the Ten Plagues were not necessary for achieving a physical victory over Pharaoh (had that been the objective, God could have brought the Jews out of Egypt simply by destroying Pharaoh).
Rather, the objective was (as the Midrash puts it) “to liberate the Jewish people from their worship of Egyptian gods.” The Jews of that generation were deeply entrenched in Egyptian culture. For their impending break with Egypt, they needed first to be convinced of the failure of the Egyptian system. Their connection with Egypt was so strong that this process of absolute disengagement from Egypt could not have been achieved with just one swift blow, however powerful. Thus, all ten plagues were needed for their gradual but cumulative effect.
8.2. A Promise to the Patriarchs is Realized for Their Descendants (6:2-5)
(2) God spoke to Moses and said to him, “I am the Lord.
(3) I appeared to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as El Shaddai, but I did not make Myself known to them by My name 'Lord.'
(4) I also established My covenant with them, to give them the land of Canaan, the land in which they lived as sojourners.
(5) I have now heard the moaning of the Israelites because the Egyptians are holding them in bondage, and I have remembered My covenant.
(2) God spoke to Moses: Here the Almighty explains the current situation to Moses, and in the next passage he instructs Moses what to say to the people. This explanation is the answer to Moses’ question: “O Lord, why did You bring harm upon this people?” (5:22). In the verse that followed that question, God first offered a short answer, and now He elaborates on that answer.
These words are meant as a criticism to Moses, who seems at a loss whenever problems arise. When God appeared to the Patriarchs and gave them promises, they accepted those promises on their own terms. But Moses, at the first sign of any difficulty, starts in with reproaches to God. We noted earlier [58] that Moses’ claims are in fact entirely natural, which underscores a difference between the ancestors and their descendants. In the era of Patriarchs, the fulfillment of God’s promises is fundamentally impossible; it is their destiny only for the future. The ancestors therefore live on the promises alone, confident that even if they cannot themselves realize their aspirations. their descendants will. And for this they are prepared to wait.
But in the era of the descendants the promises must be fulfilled, and they will soon experience a crisis if that fulfillment is delayed. It is therefore essential that the descendants see things in the proper perspective, so as not to grow despondent when promises are fulfilled more slowly than they had hoped.
God spoke to Moses and said to him, “I am the Lord”: It is essential here to note the contrast of “God” and “the Lord.” In the original Hebrew these are Elohim and HaShem (the Tetragrammaton), which represent the attributes of Judgment and Mercy, respectively. God is saying to Moses: “I, the God of judgment, am also the Lord of mercy.” That is, the manifestations of these two attributes are both aspects of the One God.
This principle is among the most fundamental in Jewish monotheism. Those phenomena in the world that seem to manifest God’s strict judgment actually derive from His desire for mercy. The universe is so designed that it is often necessary to act with severity in order for mercy to be realized. Thus, God’s message here is that the recent intensification of the Egyptian oppression was a matter of historical necessity.
(3) I appeared: The Hebrew is Va’era, which is also the name of this entire weekly portion. It explains, the differences between the manner of God’s appearance to the Patriarchs versus His appearance to the world at the Exodus.
To Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob: The essence of everything that is happening is contained in God’s covenant with the Patriarchs.
As El Shaddai: The Divine name El Shaddai, “the All-Mighty” (literally, He Who never lacks sufficient [power]”) indicates that the Divine promise will be fulfilled, even if for now it still remains only a promise.
But by My name “Lord”: This is the Tetragrammaton, YHWH, the Divine name that represents the attribute of Mercy – fulfillment of the promise.
I did not make Myself known to them: The Patriarchs knew the Name “Lord,” of course, but they never “knew” it the sense of actually experiencing it, because the Divine word in their era remained only a promise. The time for its fulfillment had to wait until now.
(4) I also established My covenant with them, to give them the land of Canaan, the land in which they lived as sojourners: The first reason that the Egyptian oppression has been temporarily intensified was stated earlier, and now the second reason is given.
I also established My covenant with them: Because God’s promise could not be fulfilled in the era of the Patriarchs, he “established the covenant,” i.e., He vowed to fulfill the promise in its proper time.
To give them the land of Canaan: The essence of the covenant of the Patriarchs is that the nation would eventually acquire its own Land. It was therefore important to break the Jews’ connection with Egypt, so that their connection to Canaan (i.e., the Land of Israel) could later be forged.
The land in which they lived as sojourners: The Patriarchs lived as sojourners – aliens – in the Land, and as such did not actually own it. That is how it was at the stage of the promise, but now, with the fulfillment of that promise, their descendants will own the Land.
(5) I have now heard the moaning of the Israelites because the Egyptians are holding them in bondage, and I have remembered My covenant: This is now the third reason for the intensification of oppression. The Egyptians so brutally subjugated the Israelites, that their very survival was in peril. In order to ensure the fulfillment of the covenant, the Almighty escalated and accelerated the entire process in order to bring the Jews out of Egypt ahead of schedule.
Thus, God’s response to Moses question, “O Lord, why did You bring harm upon this people?,” consists of three distinct aspects: (1) The attribute of Mercy (“the Lord”) often takes the form of Judgment (“God”) in its outward appearance; (2) The Jews’ psychological connection to Egypt must be broken; (3) The people are not prepared for the Exodus, because it is happening sooner than originally planned. This is one of those times when God must act harshly in order to hasten events.
8.3. The Five Stages of Redemption (6:6-8)
(6) Say, therefore, to the Israelite people: I am the Lord. I will free you from the labors of the Egyptians and deliver you from their bondage. I will redeem you with an outstretched arm and through extraordinary chastisements.
(7) And I will take you to be My people, and I will be your God. And you shall know that I, the Lord, am your God who freed you from the labors of the Egyptians.
(8) I will bring you into the land which I swore to give to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and I will give it to you for a possession, I the Lord.”
(6) Say, therefore, to the Israelite people: God now directs Moses to appeal not to the elders, but to the people directly.
I am the Lord: The time has come to fulfill My promise.
(6-7) I will free you from the labors of the Egyptians and deliver you from their bondage. I will redeem you with an outstretched arm and through extraordinary chastisements. And I will take you to be My people, and I will be your God: These are the first four “expressions of Redemption,” which correspond to the four stages of Divine revelation in the world. “I will free you” refers to the physical exodus, “and deliver you” means the spiritual and psychological exodus, “I will redeem you” means salvation from persecution, and “I will take you” is the people’s transition to a direct connection with the Almighty.
The Midrash understands the words “And I will take you to be My people, and I will be your God” as referring to the Giving of the Torah. Strictly speaking, however, there is no mention of the giving of the Torah in this passage. Everything here relates to the “nationalist aspect,” corresponding to the covenant of the Patriarchs (not the covenant of Sinai).
During the Talmudic era, these four “expressions of Redemption” were incorporated into the Passover Haggadah as the central theme of the annual retelling of the Exodus at the seder on the first night of Passover (two nights in the Diaspora).
And you shall know that I, the Lord, am your God who freed you from the labors of the Egyptians: The result of all this will be that you will “know” – i.e., understand – that it is God Who leads you and Who determines the course of history.
(8) I will bring you into the land which I swore to give to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and I will give it to you for a possession, I the Lord: This is the fifth of the “expressions of Redemption,” but it is set off from the first four. The first four implied no specific action on the part of the people, and set no conditions, but at the fifth stage, preconditions are set. The Jewish nation can inherit their Land only if the people understand that it is God Who leads them and drives the course of history, and that the historical events all around them are happening only by God’s command.
Seeing the ongoing history of the Jewish people as a dialogue between man and God is among Judaism’s most essential concepts.
8.4. A New Directive to Go to Pharaoh (6:9-13)
(9) But when Moses told this to the Israelites, they would not listen to Moses, their spirits crushed by cruel bondage.
(10) The Lord spoke to Moses, saying,
(11) “Go and tell Pharaoh king of Egypt to let the Israelites depart from his land.”
(12) But Moses appealed to the Lord, saying, “The Israelites would not listen to me; how then should Pharaoh heed me, a man of impeded speech!”
(13) So the Lord spoke to both Moses and Aaron in regard to the Israelites and Pharaoh king of Egypt, instructing them to deliver the Israelites from the land of Egypt.
(9) But when Moses told this to the Israelites, they would not listen to Moses, their spirits crushed by cruel bondage: The Jews’ faint-heartedness is due only to their extraordinary exertions. It is not their natural state, and they will overcome it once they gain their freedom. It is important for Moses to recognize this connection.
When faced once before, in his youth, with Jews who were faint of heart, Moses then mistakenly concluded that they were hopeless, but now he must revise his outlook. Therefore, God once again requires Moses to deal with Jews who lack courage, so that Moses will understand that instead of abandoning the Jews on account of that weakness, he should be helping them to overcome it. Moses must be prepared to lead the Jews out of Egypt even if they are themselves not prepared for the Exodus.
(10-11) The Lord spoke to Moses, saying, “Go and tell Pharaoh king of Egypt to let the Israelites depart from his land”: Moses should not be trying to persuade the Jews. Rather, he must go to Pharaoh. Moses’ struggle with Pharaoh will itself be a positive influence on the Jews, strengthening them and preparing them for the Exodus.
(12) But Moses appealed to the Lord, saying, “The Israelites would not listen to me; how then should Pharaoh heed me”: Moses expresses his misgivings about the course of action that God has just instructed him to undertake.
A man of impeded speech!: Moses is not talking here of slowness of tongue (in contrast to an earlier passage, 4:10), for he has already surmounted that obstacle. The “impeded speech” Moses invokes here refers to his difficulty in finding mutual understanding with the outside world. This still remains a problem for Moses.
(13) So the Lord spoke to both Moses and Aaron in regard to the Israelites and Pharaoh king of Egypt, instructing them to deliver the Israelites from the land of Egypt: The Almighty, in His dialogue with Moses at the Burning Bush, had already assured Moses that being “slow of speech and slow of tongue” is not at all an issue. But Moses is still concerned. Aaron’s status is therefore on the rise. No longer is Aaron only Moses’ “interpreter.” God now sees Moses and Aaron as equals, and treats them accordingly.
8.5. The Lineage of the Levite Clan (6:14-27)
(14) The following are the heads of their respective clans. The sons of Reuben, Israel’s first-born: Enoch and Pallu, Hezron and Carmi; those are the families of Reuben.
(15) The sons of Simeon: Jemuel, Jamin, Ohad, Jachin, Zohar, and Saul the son of a Canaanite woman; those are the families of Simeon.
(16) These are the names of Levi’s sons by their lineage: Gershon, Kohath, and Merari; and the span of Levi’s life was 137 years.
(17) The sons of Gershon: Libni and Shimei, by their families.
(18) The sons of Kohath: Amram, Izhar, Hebron, and Uzziel; and the span of Kohath’s life was 133 years.
(19) The sons of Merari: Mahli and Mushi. These are the families of the Levites by their lineage.
(20) Amram took to wife his father’s sister Jochebed, and she bore him Aaron and Moses; and the span of Amram’s life was 137 years.
(21) The sons of Izhar: Korah, Nepheg, and Zichri.
(22) The sons of Uzziel: Mishael, Elzaphan, and Sithri.
(23) Aaron took to wife Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab and sister of Nahshon, and she bore him Nadab and Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar.
(24) The sons of Korah: Assir, Elkanah, and Abiasaph. Those are the families of the Korahites.
(25) And Aaron’s son Eleazar took to wife one of Putiel’s daughters, and she bore him Phinehas. Those are the heads of the fathers’ houses of the Levites by their families.
(26) It is the same Aaron and Moses to whom the Lord said, “Bring forth the Israelites from the land of Egypt, troop by troop.”
(27) It was they who spoke to Pharaoh king of Egypt to free the Israelites from the Egyptians; these are the same Moses and Aaron.
(14) The following are the heads of their respective clans: The narrative is suddenly interrupted by the genealogy of Moses and Aaron. It would seem that the proper place for elaborating the pedigree of the Levites is not here, but at the very beginning of this book of Exodus (2:1 ff.). But the treatment there was only a highly generalized account devoid of any mention of names at all: “A certain man of the house of Levi went and married a Levite woman. The woman conceived and bore a son.” This was meant to be symbolic of suppression of all individual identity, which is typical of an enslaved people. Here, however, all names are liberally supplied, indicating that self-awareness is increasing as the process of the Exodus begins.
(14-15) The sons of Reuben, Israel’s first-born … The sons of Simeon: The story line begins with Reuben and Simon, since the nation begins with them, and the Levites are important not in isolation, but as a part of the nation as whole. Beyond that, however, only the family of Moses and Aaron is covered in detail.
(16-19) These are the names of Levi’s sons by their lineage: Gershon, Kohath, and Merari … The sons of Gershon … The sons of Kohath … The sons of Merari: The Levite family tree is traced in detail, because of the importance it will have in the future. In the encampment of the Jews in the wilderness, the Levites will be divided into the same three sub-clans as they are here, and the status of the three Levite clans will be comparable to that of the individual tribes of Israel.
And the span of Levi’s life was 137 years … And the span of Kohath’s life was 133 years … And the span of Amram’s life was 137 years: In the case of Moses’ immediate ancestors the total lifespan of each is also indicated. The Midrash posits that the Torah mentions the total years of Levi's life because the time of his death corresponds to the moment that the enslavement of the Jews began (that did not occur until all the sons of Jacob had died, and it is assumed that Levi was the last of them).
But more directly, we can see the enumeration of Moses’ ancestors’ lifespans as underscoring Moses’ preeminence, in that he is included, as it were, among the “pillars of humanity.” Early in the book of Genesis the Torah enumerates the lifespans of all the generations from Adam to Noah, from Noah to Abraham, and, later, the twelve sons of Jacob. That the same is done here for Moses shows that Moses’ importance is no less than that of all of them.
(20) Amram took to wife his father’s sister Jochebed, and she bore him Aaron and Moses: As noted earlier, no mention is made of Moses’ parents’ names in the story of his birth at the beginning of the book of Exodus. But Jewish individual identity is from this point on steadily increasing.
Took to wife his father’s sister: Before the giving of the Torah there was no prohibition against marrying one’s father’s sister.
(21) The sons of Izhar: Korah … The sons of Korah … Those are the families of the Korahites: This is Korah who led the rebellion against Moses during the wilderness era (Num. 16). Korah’s mention here demonstrates the special, elevated status that he enjoyed from very early on.
(22) The sons of Uzziel: Mishael, Elzaphan, and Sithri: They too will play an important role in the future (see Lev. 10:4).
(23) Aaron took to wife Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab and sister of Nahshon: Amminadab and his son Nahshon were princes of the tribe of Judah. This marriage thus further influenced the special relationship of that tribe to the Kohanim (the Priestly clan).
And she bore him Nadab and Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar: Aaron’s four sons are the future Kohanim.
(25) And Aaron’s son Eleazar took to wife one of Putiel’s daughters, and she bore him Phinehas: Phinehas was born before Aaron and his sons became Priests. This fact will prove essential for understanding the story of Phinehas as told in the book of Numbers (ch. 25).
One of Putiel’s daughters: The name “Putiel” bears a certain resemblance to the name of the Egyptian priest Poti-phera (Gen. 41:45). The Midrash suggests that Putiel was an Egyptian who belonged to the priestly class. We can see this as demonstrating the close ties that existed between the Egyptian and Jewish elites (and Moses’ family in particular), as already noted above.
(25-26) Those are the heads of the fathers’ houses of the Levites by their families. It is the same Aaron and Moses …: This genealogy, which establishes Moses’ place within the Jewish nation, shows that his connection with the people is now steadily growing stronger. So long as Moses fails to realize his place within the Jewish nation, and the lineage of its tribes and clans, he cannot lead the people out of Egypt. Therefore, the purpose of enumerating Moses’ genealogy and that of his family here is not so much to inform us of those facts themselves, as to stress that Moses himself is now aware of them.
(26) It is the same Aaron and Moses to whom the Lord said, “Bring forth the Israelites from the land of Egypt, troop by troop”: During the Egyptian bondage, and even when God was already giving instructions about the upcoming Exodus, Aaron was the leader of the Jewish community. In recognition of that, in this verse Aaron is mentioned before Moses.
(27) It was they who spoke to Pharaoh king of Egypt to free the Israelites from the Egyptians; these are the same Moses and Aaron: But as soon as the action begins, Moses becomes the leader (and is therefore now mentioned before Aaron).
8.6. A Retrospective of Moses’ Mission (6:28-7:7)
(28) For when the Lord spoke to Moses in the land of Egypt
(29) and the Lord said to Moses, “I am the Lord; speak to Pharaoh king of Egypt all that I will tell you,”
(30) Moses appealed to the Lord, saying, “See, I am of impeded speech; how then should Pharaoh heed me!”
(7:1) The Lord replied to Moses, “See, I place you in the role of God to Pharaoh, with your brother Aaron as your prophet.
(2) You shall repeat all that I command you, and your brother Aaron shall speak to Pharaoh to let the Israelites depart from his land.
(3) But I will harden Pharaoh’s heart, that I may multiply My signs and marvels in the land of Egypt.
(4) When Pharaoh does not heed you, I will lay My hand upon Egypt and deliver My ranks, My people the Israelites, from the land of Egypt with extraordinary chastisements.
(5) And the Egyptians shall know that I am the Lord, when I stretch out My hand over Egypt and bring out the Israelites from their midst.”
(6) This Moses and Aaron did; as the Lord commanded them, so they did.
(7) Moses was eighty years old and Aaron eighty-three, when they made their demand on Pharaoh.
(28) For when the Lord spoke to Moses in the land of Egypt: After enumerating the genealogy of Moses and Aaron, which reinforces their position within the Jewish nation, the text returns to the narrative of their mission. But it will be described not as it appeared from the “inside” (as in the previous chapter, 6:9-13) – fraught with a multitude of doubts and internal problems – but as it looked from the outside. The difference is quite striking.
(29) And the Lord said to Moses, “I am the Lord; speak to Pharaoh king of Egypt all that I will tell you”: This instruction concerns Pharaoh only. The internal problems of the Jews are not mentioned.
(7:1) The Lord replied to Moses, “See, I place you in the role of God to Pharaoh, with your brother Aaron as your prophet”: In a similar passage above (6:13), Moses’ self-doubt had the effect of diminishing his status with respect to Aaron. But here it is presented as merely a technical problem. Moses’ importance is magnified, while Aaron is included only for transmitting his messages to Pharaoh.
(2) You shall repeat all that I command you, and your brother Aaron shall speak to Pharaoh to let the Israelites depart from his land: Moreover, Moses will receive from God, as He puts it, “all that I command,” which is much more than simply “Let my people go!” That is, Moses will receive from God much more than what Aaron will relay to Pharaoh. Here, Moses’ status is raised yet further, as it were, as compared with that of Aaron.
(3) But I will harden Pharaoh’s heart, that I may multiply My signs and marvels in the land of Egypt: The “hardening” of Pharaoh’s heart is necessary so that Pharaoh can withstand the plagues, and not crack under the strain, so that the plagues can be brought to completion. As explained earlier, hardening Pharaoh’s heart does not deprive him of his freedom of choice. On the contrary, it allows him to avoid panicking during the plagues, while leaving him free to make his own, independent decisions.
(4) When Pharaoh does not heed you, I will lay My hand upon Egypt and deliver My ranks, My people the Israelites, from the land of Egypt with extraordinary chastisements: In order to make the necessary impression, the Egyptian plagues must be nothing less than “extraordinary.” Otherwise, the Exodus itself will not create the needed impression, and its impact on the world will be likewise much weaker.
(5) And the Egyptians shall know that I am the Lord, when I stretch out My hand over Egypt and bring out the Israelites from their midst: The Torah is emphasizing here that it is the Egyptians, not the Jews, who will first experience the Divine revelation.
(6) This Moses and Aaron did; as the Lord commanded them, so they did: When viewed from the outside, everything seems to go smoothly. There is no mention of hesitations or doubts, or of Moses’ refusals, or that the people are not ready for the Exodus. All we need to know is that God commanded, and Moses and Aaron did exactly as told.
(7) Moses was eighty years old and Aaron eighty-three, when they made their demand on Pharaoh: By indicating the two brothers’ exact ages, the Torah establishes the date of the Exodus in relation to Moses’ birth and life story, as told earlier in this Book. We now also understand how long Moses was living apart from the Jewish people.
8.7. “Marvels” for Persuading Pharaoh (7:8-13)
(8) The Lord said to Moses and Aaron,
(9) “When Pharaoh speaks to you and says, ‘Produce your marvel,’ you shall say to Aaron, ‘Take your rod and cast it down before Pharaoh.’ It shall turn into a serpent.”
(10) So Moses and Aaron came before Pharaoh and did just as the Lord had commanded: Aaron cast down his rod in the presence of Pharaoh and his courtiers, and it turned into a serpent.
(11) Then Pharaoh, for his part, summoned the wise men and the sorcerers; and the Egyptian magicians, in turn, did the same with their spells;
(12) each cast down his rod, and they turned into serpents. But Aaron’s rod swallowed their rods.
(13) Yet Pharaoh’s heart stiffened and he did not heed them, as the Lord had said.
(8) The Lord said to Moses and Aaron: Moses and Aaron receive God’s instructions as one. So far as their inner qualities are concerned, Moses and Aaron are equals.
(9) When Pharaoh speaks to you and says, “Produce your marvel,” you shall say to Aaron, “Take your rod and cast it down before Pharaoh.” It shall turn into a serpent: But to Pharaoh and the Egyptians it must appear that of the two, Moses is primary, and Aaron only follows his lead.
(10) So Moses and Aaron came before Pharaoh and did just as the Lord had commanded: Aaron cast down his rod in the presence of Pharaoh and his courtiers, and it turned into a serpent: This marvel, which was earlier intended to convince the Jews, is now directed to Pharaoh.
(11) Then Pharaoh, for his part, summoned the wise men and the sorcerers; and the Egyptian magicians, in turn, did the same with their spells: Unlike the Jews, who believed this sign when Moses performed it, Pharaoh is more skeptical.
(12) Each cast down his rod, and they turned into serpents. But Aaron’s rod swallowed their rods: So far, the contest is happening at the level of magic, and Aaron demonstrates greater skill in those arts than do Pharaoh’s magicians.
(13) Yet Pharaoh’s heart stiffened and he did not heed them, as the Lord had said: Pharaoh’s heart is stiff, which means that he is not motivated by fear and is able to think rationally. Pharaoh therefore makes a carefully measured decision: Expertise in magic, however exceptional, is not a basis for determining sound political action.
Chapter 9. The Ten Plagues
9.1. The First Plague: Turning Water into Blood (7:14-24)
The setup:
(14) And the Lord said to Moses, “Pharaoh is stubborn; he refuses to let the people go.
(15) Go to Pharaoh in the morning, as he is coming out to the water, and station yourself before him at the edge of the Nile, taking with you the rod that turned into a snake.
(16) And say to him, ‘The Lord, the God of the Hebrews, sent me to you to say, “Let My people go that they may worship Me in the wilderness.” But you have paid no heed until now.
(17) Thus says the Lord, “By this you shall know that I am the Lord.” See, I shall strike the water in the Nile with the rod that is in my hand, and it will be turned into blood;
(18) and the fish in the Nile will die. The Nile will stink so that the Egyptians will find it impossible to drink the water of the Nile.’ ”
The actual plague:
(19) And the Lord said to Moses, “Say to Aaron: Take your rod and hold out your arm over the waters of Egypt — its rivers, its canals, its ponds, all its bodies of water — that they may turn to blood; there shall be blood throughout the land of Egypt, even in vessels of wood and stone.”
(20) Moses and Aaron did just as the Lord commanded: he lifted up the rod and struck the water in the Nile in the sight of Pharaoh and his courtiers, and all the water in the Nile was turned into blood
(21) and the fish in the Nile died. The Nile stank so that the Egyptians could not drink water from the Nile; and there was blood throughout the land of Egypt.
The Egyptian magicians respond:
(22) But when the Egyptian magicians did the same with their spells, Pharaoh’s heart stiffened and he did not heed them — as the Lord had spoken.
Pharaoh’s reaction:
(23) Pharaoh turned and went into his palace, paying no regard even to this.
(24) And all the Egyptians had to dig round about the Nile for drinking water, because they could not drink the water of the Nile.
(14) And the Lord said to Moses: The first three plagues are aimed at undermining the authority of the Egyptian sorcerers and magicians. To accomplish this, these plagues are constructed such that the magicians are able to duplicate the first and the second (in order to draw them into the contest), but not the third – and they themselves admit defeat.
Pharaoh is stubborn; he refuses to let the people go: That is, everything is going according to Pharaoh’s preconceived plan.
(15) Go to Pharaoh in the morning, as he is coming out to the water, and station yourself before him at the edge of the Nile: Turning the water of the Nile into blood corresponds to the third of the three signs that Moses performed for the Jews (4:9).
Taking with you the rod that turned into a snake: The staff was at first only a sign. But because of Pharaoh’s resistance, signs now become plagues.
(16) And say to him, ‘The Lord, the God of the Hebrews, sent me to you to say, “Let My people go that they may worship Me in the wilderness”: In his meeting with Pharaoh, Moses still speaks of religious rituals, and not of the nationalist aspect of returning the Jews to their land.
“Let My people go that they may worship Me”: This now-famous phrase is most often heard quoted not in full but only in part: “Let My people go!” But “that they may worship Me” is omitted, as if to suggest that the purpose of the Exodus was simply to liberate the Jews from slavery. From the Torah’s perspective, however, freedom from slavery was for the Jews only a means to and end. The goal was to bring them to their Land in order to serve the Almighty.
But you have paid no heed until now: Thus, Pharaoh himself is to blame for the harsh measures that God must resort to in dealing with him.
(17) Thus says the Lord, “By this you shall know that I am the Lord.” See, I shall strike the water in the Nile with the rod that is in my hand, and it will be turned into blood: Because you yourself said (5:2), “I do not know the Lord,” it must be explained to you. By this you shall know!
(18) And the fish in the Nile will die. The Nile will stink so that the Egyptians will find it impossible to drink the water of the Nile: Egypt deifies nature, and are thus enslaved by it. But the Nile, most of all, is the primary force of nature and the source of all life in Egypt, symbolizing Egyptian stability. The plagues, and the reset of the Egyptian worldview, must therefore begin with the Nile.
(19) And the Lord said to Moses, “Say to Aaron: Take your rod and hold out your arm over the waters of Egypt: The first three plagues are targeted at destroying the illusion of Egypt’s inviolability. Since those plagues represent a “competition” with the magicians as Pharaoh’s representatives, Aaron executes them as Moses’ representative.
(22) But when the Egyptian magicians did the same with their spells, Pharaoh’s heart stiffened and he did not heed them — as the Lord had spoken: This first plague, water turning into blood, is very much like Egyptian magic. There is nothing special about it, nor was it supposed to actually convince Pharaoh of anything. The purpose of this plague is simply to “stiffen Pharaoh’s heart,” which only reinforces his belief in Egypt’s predominance.
(23) Pharaoh turned and went into his palace, paying no regard even to this: Notice that Pharaoh does not even ask for the plague to be lifted (as he will do in future plagues, as we shall see). The Egyptians have other water sources, which they can draw upon quite easily. There is thus no real crisis.
(24) And all the Egyptians had to dig round about the Nile for drinking water, because they could not drink the water of the Nile: The first plagues were deliberately kept somewhat mild, to allow the Egyptians to retain their freedom of choice.
9.2. The Second Plague: Frogs (7:25-8:11)
A brief respite:
(25) When seven days had passed after the Lord struck the Nile,
The setup:
(26) the Lord said to Moses, “Go to Pharaoh and say to him, ‘Thus says the Lord: Let My people go that they may worship Me.
(27) If you refuse to let them go, then I will plague your whole country with frogs.
(28) The Nile shall swarm with frogs, and they shall come up and enter your palace, your bedchamber and your bed, the houses of your courtiers and your people, and your ovens and your kneading bowls.
(29) The frogs shall come up on you and on your people and on all your courtiers.’ ”
The plague itself:
(8:1) And the Lord said to Moses, “Say to Aaron: Hold out your arm with the rod over the rivers, the canals, and the ponds, and bring up the frogs on the land of Egypt.”
(2) Aaron held out his arm over the waters of Egypt, and the frogs came up and covered the land of Egypt.
The magicians respond:
(3) But the magicians did the same with their spells, and brought frogs upon the land of Egypt.
Pharaoh’s reaction:
(4) Then Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron and said, “Plead with the Lord to remove the frogs from me and my people, and I will let the people go to sacrifice to the Lord.”
(5) And Moses said to Pharaoh, “You may have this triumph over me: for what time shall I plead in behalf of you and your courtiers and your people, that the frogs be cut off from you and your houses, to remain only in the Nile?”
(6) “For tomorrow,” he replied. And [Moses] said, “As you say — that you may know that there is none like the Lord our God;
(7) the frogs shall retreat from you and your courtiers and your people; they shall remain only in the Nile.”
(8) Then Moses and Aaron left Pharaoh’s presence, and Moses cried out to the Lord in the matter of the frogs which He had inflicted upon Pharaoh.
(9) And the Lord did as Moses asked; the frogs died out in the houses, the courtyards, and the fields.
(10) And they piled them up in heaps, till the land stank.
(11) But when Pharaoh saw that there was relief, he became stubborn and would not heed them, as the Lord had spoken.
(25) When seven days had passed after the Lord struck the Nile: Each of the Ten Plagues took about a month, including the lulls between them. The entire period of plagues thus lasted about a year, a period of reeducation for both the Egyptians and the Jews alike.
(28) The Nile shall swarm with frogs, and they shall come up and enter your palace, your bedchamber and your bed, the houses of your courtiers and your people, and your ovens and your kneading bowls: As with the first plague, which turned the Nile waters into blood, here too the frogs arise out of the Nile, and eventually fill every square inch of the Egyptians’ living space.
(8:3) But the magicians did the same with their spells, and brought frogs upon the land of Egypt: Although the magicians have the necessary skill to create frogs, they are not able to rid Egypt of them. Even frogs, diminutive and harmless creatures, overpower the Egyptian magicians, which is symbolic of the Egyptians’ utter helplessness.
(4) Then Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron and said, “Plead with the Lord to remove the frogs from me and my people, and I will let the people go to sacrifice to the Lord”: During the first plague the Egyptians got access to water by digging new wells. But now they cannot rid themselves of the frogs, so Pharaoh capitulates to Moses’ demands.
(5) And Moses said to Pharaoh, “You may have this triumph over me: for what time shall I plead in behalf of you and your courtiers and your people, that the frogs be cut off from you and your houses, to remain only in the Nile?”: Moses wants to show Pharaoh that he, Moses, neither initiates the plagues nor halts them. Everything is in the hands of the Almighty, and all Moses can do is to relay Pharaoh’s petitions to Him.
(6) “For tomorrow,” he replied: Tomorrow, not today. Pharaoh is very strong-willed. He is willing to endure an oppressive situation simply to test Moses and verify the accuracy of his prognostications.
And [Moses] said, “As you say — that you may know that there is none like the Lord our God”: That is, in order to convince you that these plagues are not magic.
(8) Then Moses and Aaron left Pharaoh’s presence, and Moses cried out to the Lord in the matter of the frogs which He had inflicted upon Pharaoh: Moses “cried out” – he prayed fervently – because it was now important that the plague would end at the exact time indicated.
(9) And the Lord did as Moses asked; the frogs died out in the houses, the courtyards, and the fields: The Almighty fulfills Moses’ request with great precision.
(10) And they piled them up in heaps, till the land stank: The symbolism here is that notwithstanding all the external brilliance of Egyptian civilization, it is decaying from the inside out.
(11) But when Pharaoh saw that there was relief, he became stubborn and would not heed them, as the Lord had spoken: From this point on Pharaoh fails time and again to make good on his promises given openly and publicly. The effect is to destroy the last remnants of Jewish trust in the Egyptian system (and Egyptian trust as well).
9.3. The Third Plague: Lice (8:12-15)
The setup:
(12) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Say to Aaron: Hold out your rod and strike the dust of the earth, and it shall turn to lice throughout the land of Egypt.”
The actual plague:
(13) And they did so. Aaron held out his arm with the rod and struck the dust of the earth, and vermin came upon man and beast; all the dust of the earth turned to lice throughout the land of Egypt.
The magicians respond:
(14) The magicians did the like with their spells to produce lice, but they could not. The vermin remained upon man and beast;
(15) and the magicians said to Pharaoh, “This is the finger of God!”
Pharaoh’s reaction:
But Pharaoh’s heart stiffened and he would not heed them, as the Lord had spoken.
(12) Then the Lord said to Moses: The purpose of the third plague is to utterly demolish the reputation of Pharaoh’s magicians.
(13) Aaron held out his arm with the rod: Aaron executes the first three plagues.
And struck the dust of the earth, and vermin came upon man and beast; all the dust of the earth turned to lice throughout the land of Egypt: The earth (i.e., soil) itself turned into lice.
(14) The magicians did the like with their spells to produce lice, but they could not: Humiliating the magicians is an important step toward destroying the Egyptian ideology.
The vermin remained upon man and beast: The magicians could neither produce lice, nor protect themselves from them.
(15) And the magicians said to Pharaoh, “This is the finger of God!”: The magicians acknowledge that they cannot reproduce this plague through witchcraft, which means that it comes from the Almighty.
But Pharaoh’s heart stiffened and he would not heed them, as the Lord had spoken: Pharaoh no longer gives ear to the magicians, and this proves yet more detrimental to the Egyptian value system.
9.4. The Fourth Plague: Swarms of Insects (8:16-28)
The setup:
(16) And the Lord said to Moses, “Early in the morning present yourself to Pharaoh, as he is coming out to the water, and say to him, ‘Thus says the Lord: Let My people go that they may worship Me.
(17) For if you do not let My people go, I will let loose swarms of insects against you and your courtiers and your people and your houses; the houses of the Egyptians, and the very ground they stand on, shall be filled with swarms of insects.
(18) But on that day I will set apart the region of Goshen, where My people dwell, so that no swarms of insects shall be there, that you may know that I the Lord am in the midst of the land.
(19) And I will make a distinction between My people and your people. Tomorrow this sign shall come to pass.’ ”
The actual plague:
(20) And the Lord did so. Heavy swarms of insects invaded Pharaoh’s palace and the houses of his courtiers; throughout the country of Egypt the land was ruined because of the swarms of insects.
Pharaoh’s reaction:
(21) Then Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron and said, “Go and sacrifice to your God within the land.”
(22) But Moses replied, “It would not be right to do this, for what we sacrifice to the Lord our God is untouchable to the Egyptians. If we sacrifice that which is untouchable to the Egyptians before their very eyes, will they not stone us!
(23) So we must go a distance of three days into the wilderness and sacrifice to the Lord our God as He may command us.”
(24) Pharaoh said, “I will let you go to sacrifice to the Lord your God in the wilderness; but do not go very far. Plead, then, for me.”
(25) And Moses said, “When I leave your presence, I will plead with the Lord that the swarms of insects depart tomorrow from Pharaoh and his courtiers and his people; but let not Pharaoh again act deceitfully, not letting the people go to sacrifice to the Lord.”
(26) So Moses left Pharaoh’s presence and pleaded with the Lord.
(27) And the Lord did as Moses asked: He removed the swarms of insects from Pharaoh, from his courtiers, and from his people; not one remained.
(28) But Pharaoh became stubborn this time also, and would not let the people go.
(16-18) And the Lord said to Moses … “I will let loose swarms of insects against you and your courtiers and your people and your houses … swarms of insects … But on that day I will set apart the region of Goshen, where My people dwell”: The fourth through the sixth plagues comprise the second group of the ten, whose objective is to set Israel apart from Egypt. All along the Jews have been accustomed to seeing themselves as an integral part of Egyptian life, and it is difficult now for them to realize that they are not just one more subgroup within the Egyptian people, a caste of political untouchables, but a completely separate nation. The objective of these plagues was to create a sense of societal distinction among the Jews, and for the Egyptians too to acknowledge that.
(19) And I will make a distinction between My people and your people: Since the Jews are now scattered over all of Egypt, and not only in the land of Goshen, distinction will occur throughout the country.
(20) And the Lord did so. Heavy swarms of insects invaded Pharaoh’s palace and the houses of his courtiers; throughout the country of Egypt the land was ruined because of the swarms of insects: This plague was significantly more difficult to bear than the previous ones.
(21) Then Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron and said, “Go and sacrifice to your God within the land”: Pharaoh has now begun to relent, and is gradually acquiescing to an ever greater share of the demands.
(22) But Moses replied, “It would not be right to do this, for what we sacrifice to the Lord our God is untouchable to the Egyptians. If we sacrifice that which is untouchable to the Egyptians before their very eyes, will they not stone us!”: The conflict between Moses and Pharaoh gives the outward appearance of a debate over religious rituals and sacrifices, not about liberating the Jews. But these topics are inextricably linked. Moses therefore says during the second series of plagues that all Jews will participate in the sacrifice – not only the men, but the women and children too – and they must also take all their livestock and property with them. Religious service is for the Jews not a magical ritual, for which a small group of priests would be sufficient, but a nationwide event that requires total participation, because its purpose is to educate the entire nation.
(23) So we must go a distance of three days into the wilderness and sacrifice to the Lord our God as He may command us: Only by distancing themselves from Egypt and feeling completely free can the Jews fully receive and accept the Divine word.
(24) Pharaoh said, “I will let you go to sacrifice to the Lord your God in the wilderness; but do not go very far. Plead, then, for me”: Pharaoh is gradually becoming more amenable to making concessions. He is also increasingly aware of his own involvement in the service of the Almighty.
(25) And Moses said, “When I leave your presence, I will plead with the Lord”: Moses is loath even to pray in Pharaoh’s presence.
That the swarms of insects depart tomorrow from Pharaoh: Once again Moses demonstrates the accuracy of the prophecy by scheduling it for the morrow.
But let not Pharaoh again act deceitfully, not letting the people go to sacrifice to the Lord: Moses now expresses himself more pointedly, which forces Pharaoh and all concerned to view the events differently.
(28) But Pharaoh became stubborn this time also, and would not let the people go: Because Pharaoh has now hardened his own heart, there is no need for the Almighty to intervene further. This demonstrates that the hardening of Pharaoh's heart is happening by his own doing – God is only assisting him to that end.
9.5. The Fifth Plague: Pestilence (9:1-7)
The setup:
(1) The Lord said to Moses, “Go to Pharaoh and say to him, ‘Thus says the Lord, the God of the Hebrews: Let My people go to worship Me.
(2) For if you refuse to let them go, and continue to hold them,
(3) then the hand of the Lord will strike your livestock in the fields — the horses, the asses, the camels, the cattle, and the sheep — with a very severe pestilence.
(4) But the Lord will make a distinction between the livestock of Israel and the livestock of the Egyptians, so that nothing shall die of all that belongs to the Israelites.
(5) The Lord has fixed the time: tomorrow the Lord will do this thing in the land.’ ”
The actual plague:
(6) And the Lord did so the next day: all the livestock of the Egyptians died, but of the livestock of the Israelites not a beast died.
Pharaoh’s reaction:
(7) When Pharaoh inquired, he found that not a head of the livestock of Israel had died; yet Pharaoh remained stubborn, and he would not let the people go.
(4) But the Lord will make a distinction between the livestock of Israel and the livestock of the Egyptians, so that nothing shall die of all that belongs to the Israelites: The distinction between Israel and Egypt is now evident not only with respect to the people themselves, but to their property as well.
(7) When Pharaoh inquired, he found that not a head of the livestock of Israel had died: Pharaoh is of course deeply troubled by the misfortunes that have beset his country. But he also truly wants to understand the underlying pattern of events, and to verify the accuracy of Moses’ words.
9.6. The Sixth Plague: Boils (9:8-12)
The setup:
(8) Then the Lord said to Moses and Aaron, “Each of you take handfuls of soot from the kiln, and let Moses throw it toward the sky in the sight of Pharaoh.
(9) It shall become a fine dust all over the land of Egypt, and cause an inflammation breaking out in boils on man and beast throughout the land of Egypt.”
The actual plague:
(10) So they took soot of the kiln and appeared before Pharaoh; Moses threw it toward the sky, and it caused an inflammation breaking out in boils on man and beast.
(11) The magicians were unable to confront Moses because of the inflammation, for the inflammation afflicted the magicians as well as all the other Egyptians.
Pharaoh’s reaction:
(12) But the Lord stiffened the heart of Pharaoh, and he would not heed them, just as the Lord had told Moses.
(10) So they took soot of the kiln and appeared before Pharaoh; Moses threw it toward the sky, and it caused an inflammation breaking out in boils on man and beast: Although we read previously (9:6) that “all the livestock of the Egyptians died,” we need not take that literally. It is possible, for example, that only the cattle that was out in the fields was killed, but not the animals that remained indoors.
(11) The magicians were unable to confront Moses because of the inflammation: Previously, the magicians failed to reproduce Aaron’s results, but now they cannot even protect themselves from the ongoing calamity. This even further shatters the image of an inviolable Egypt.
For the inflammation afflicted the magicians as well as all the other Egyptians: There is no inflammation among the Jews, however. The distinction between the Jews and the Egyptians is now becoming even more pronounced.
(12) But the Lord stiffened the heart of Pharaoh, and he would not heed them, just as the Lord had told Moses: First (8:28) “Pharaoh became stubborn this time also,” then (9:7) “Pharaoh remained stubborn,” and now “the Lord stiffened the heart of Pharaoh.” Throughout the earlier plagues Pharaoh had enough self-control to suppress his emotions and fears, and to remain stubborn. But by now he so lacks inner strength that God from above must “stiffen the heart of Pharaoh.”
As already noted, this “stiffening” of Pharaoh’s heart does not deprive him of his freedom of choice. On the contrary, the effect is that even the harshest plagues do not affect Pharaoh emotionally, nor possess him with fear. The “stiffening” restrained Pharaoh’s emotional response, so as not to interfere with his adopting rational decisions (rational in Pharaoh’s opinion, at least). It was therefore this stiffening of Pharaoh’s heart that allowed him to act freely, and to choose without fear the path that he himself wished to tread.
9.7. The Seventh Plague: Hail (9:13-35)
The setup:
(13) The Lord said to Moses, “Early in the morning present yourself to Pharaoh and say to him, ‘Thus says the Lord, the God of the Hebrews: Let My people go to worship Me.
(14) For this time I will send all My plagues upon your person, and your courtiers, and your people, in order that you may know that there is none like Me in all the world.
(15) I could have stretched forth My hand and stricken you and your people with pestilence, and you would have been effaced from the earth.
(16) Nevertheless I have spared you for this purpose: in order to show you My power, and in order that My fame may resound throughout the world.
(17) Yet you continue to thwart My people, and do not let them go!
(18) This time tomorrow I will rain down a very heavy hail, such as has not been in Egypt from the day it was founded until now.
(19) Therefore, order your livestock and everything you have in the open brought under shelter; every man and beast that is found outside, not having been brought indoors, shall perish when the hail comes down upon them!’ ”
(20) Those among Pharaoh’s courtiers who feared the Lord‘s word brought their slaves and livestock indoors to safety;
(21) but those who paid no regard to the word of the Lord left their slaves and livestock in the open.
(22) The Lord said to Moses, “Hold out your arm toward the sky that hail may fall on all the land of Egypt, upon man and beast and all the grasses of the field in the land of Egypt.”
The actual plague:
(22) The Lord said to Moses, “Hold out your arm toward the sky that hail may fall on all the land of Egypt, upon man and beast and all the grasses of the field in the land of Egypt.”
(23) So Moses held out his rod toward the sky, and the Lord sent thunder and hail, and fire streamed down to the ground, as the Lord rained down hail upon the land of Egypt.
(24) The hail was very heavy — fire flashing in the midst of the hail — such as had not fallen on the land of Egypt since it had become a nation.
(25) Throughout the land of Egypt the hail struck down all that were in the open, both man and beast; the hail also struck down all the grasses of the field and shattered all the trees of the field.
(26) Only in the region of Goshen, where the Israelites were, there was no hail.
Pharaoh’s reaction:
(27) Thereupon Pharaoh sent for Moses and Aaron and said to them, “I stand guilty this time. The Lord is in the right, and I and my people are in the wrong.
(28) Plead with the Lord that there may be an end of God’s thunder and of hail. I will let you go; you need stay no longer.”
(29) Moses said to him, “As I go out of the city, I shall spread out my hands to the Lord; the thunder will cease and the hail will fall no more, so that you may know that the earth is the Lord‘s.
(30) But I know that you and your courtiers do not yet fear the Lord God.” —
(31) Now the flax and barley were ruined, for the barley was in the ear and the flax was in bud;
(32) but the wheat and the emmer were not hurt, for they ripen late. —
(33) Leaving Pharaoh, Moses went outside the city and spread out his hands to the Lord: the thunder and the hail ceased, and no rain came pouring down upon the earth.
(34) But when Pharaoh saw that the rain and the hail and the thunder had ceased, he became stubborn and reverted to his guilty ways, as did his courtiers.
(35) So Pharaoh’s heart stiffened and he would not let the Israelites go, just as the Lord had foretold through Moses.
(13) The Lord said to Moses: The seventh through tenth plagues comprise the final group, which completes the set. These four plagues must impress upon all of Egypt not only that the Lord, God of Israel, is more powerful than all other forces, but that He is the Almighty. This realization must change the Egyptians’ understanding of the relationship between God and nature.
Early in the morning present yourself to Pharaoh: Despite the intense conflict and rampant destruction throughout all of Egypt, Pharaoh still does not prevent Moses from “presenting himself early in the morning.” This is evidence that Pharaoh operates at a high level of intellectual honesty.
And say to him, “Thus says the Lord, the God of the Hebrews: Let My people go to worship Me”: Each time Moses appears before Pharaoh, Pharaoh’s courtiers, who are also present, later retell Moses’ words to the Egyptian people. It is therefore important for Moses to repeat this phrase before each and every plague.
(14) For this time I will send all My plagues upon your person, and your courtiers, and your people, in order that you may know that there is none like Me in all the world: The purpose of the plagues is not to punish, but to explain.
(15-16) I could have stretched forth My hand and stricken you and your people with pestilence, and you would have been effaced from the earth. Nevertheless I have spared you for this purpose: in order to show you My power, and in order that My fame may resound throughout the world: The essential purpose of the plagues is neither to punish Pharaoh nor to liberate the Jews from their enslavement, but to re-educate Egypt, and through it all of humanity, after enabling them to understand the Divine doctrine, as they will, thanks to the Jewish people. The plagues can be thought of as leveling the ground on which the Divine source of light for all humanity will be situated.
(17) Yet you continue to thwart My people, and do not let them go!: And this means that you must yourself bear the blame for the plagues.
(18) This time tomorrow I will rain down a very heavy hail, such as has not been in Egypt from the day it was founded until now: This seventh plague, the likes of which Egypt has never seen before, demonstrates the Almighty’s absolute control over the natural order of the world.
(19) Therefore, order your livestock and everything you have in the open brought under shelter; every man and beast that is found outside, not having been brought indoors, shall perish when the hail comes down upon them!’ ”: Moses now turns not only to Pharaoh, but also to the Egyptians, and invites them to obey the Almighty’s directives. This becomes for each individual citizen a problem of personal choice.
(20-21) Those among Pharaoh’s courtiers who feared the Lord‘s word brought their slaves and livestock indoors to safety; but those who paid no regard to the word of the Lord left their slaves and livestock in the open: A faction is now growing among the Egyptians, whose members are now moving further and further from Pharaoh and obeying Moses instead. This is the same group that will subsequently join forces with the Jewish people and leave Egypt with them.
(24) The hail was very heavy — fire flashing in the midst of the hail — such as had not fallen on the land of Egypt since it had become a nation: The fire coexisted with the hail not merely alongside it and in close proximity to it (like lightning in a thunderstorm). Rather, fire and water were actually united within the interior of the hailstones. This phenomenon, which directly violates the laws of nature, had never happened before.
(25) Throughout the land of Egypt the hail struck down all that were in the open, both man and beast; the hail also struck down all the grasses of the field and shattered all the trees of the field: The Egyptians see firsthand that obeying Moses is the most prudent course of action.
(26) Only in the region of Goshen, where the Israelites were, there was no hail: The Land of Goshen once again serves the purpose of demonstrating the Jews’ privileged status, not only to Pharaoh, but to all the Egyptians.
(27) Thereupon Pharaoh sent for Moses and Aaron and said to them, “I stand guilty this time. The Lord is in the right, and I and my people are in the wrong”: Pharaoh is changing his tune – not only is he now ready to let the Jews leave, but he even confesses his guilt, and not just his own, but the guilt of all Egypt. So many Egyptians have decided during this plague to obey the Almighty, thus acknowledging Pharaoh’s misdeeds, that Pharaoh himself must do likewise.
(28) Plead with the Lord that there may be an end of God’s thunder and of hail. I will let you go; you need stay no longer: Pharaoh says that he is prepared to let the Jews leave. He will later change his position once again, but his readiness now so clearly expressed is increasingly undermining the Egyptians’ faith in their own country.
(29) Moses said to him, “As I go out of the city”: At this point Moses is not willing to pray even in the same city where Pharaoh resides. That is, the Jews are now becoming ever further estranged psychologically from the Egyptians.
(29-30) I shall spread out my hands to the Lord; the thunder will cease and the hail will fall no more, so that you may know that the earth is the Lord’s. But I know that you and your courtiers do not yet fear the Lord God: The idea behind all the plagues is education. Moses this time (unlike similar incidents early in his career) relates calmly to Pharaoh’s protestations.
(32) But the wheat and the emmer were not hurt, for they ripen late: That is, at that time they had not yet emerged from beneath the ground.
(34) But when Pharaoh saw that the rain and the hail and the thunder had ceased, he became stubborn and reverted to his guilty ways, as did his courtiers: The Egyptians are divided - some of them go over to the Jewish side, but the other part, whose “heart is weighed down,” will not hear of making any concessions.
(35) So Pharaoh’s heart stiffened and he would not let the Israelites go, just as the Lord had foretold through Moses: Thus, the sequence of the plagues is as follows:
First, there are three plagues designed to destroy Egypt’s confidence in its own stability. These three plagues are executed by Aaron, because their purpose is to serve as a contest between him and the magicians, and as the first stage of Moses’ dialogue with Egypt.
The theme of the second group of plagues, the fourth through the sixth, is to sever the Jewish nation from Egypt, so that it will cease to see itself as just another ethnic minority in Egypt, and will recognize itself instead as a distinct people. This second group of plagues was intended to create a sense of national separateness among the Jews, and to influence the Egyptians likewise to acknowledge it.
With that goal achieved, the third group of plagues, the seventh through the tenth, is meant to impress upon Egypt that the Lord, God of Israel, is not just “more powerful than all other forces,” but that He is the Almighty. These final plagues alter the understanding of God’s relationship with nature. At first it was shown that the God of the Jews is more powerful than the deities of Egypt’s magicians. But now the Egyptians must recognize that the Almighty rules even over the most fundamental natural laws of the universe.
All of this exacerbates the internal crisis within Egyptian society itself. The Egyptian nation is now divided between those who support the Jews and those who oppose them.
Chapter 10. The Ten Plagues (Conclusion)
10.1. The Exodus as Viewed “from Within”
The first two portions of the book of Exodus, (1) Shemot and (2) Va’era, spoke of the preparations for leaving Egypt, while the next two, (3) Bo and (4) Beshalach, will describe the Exodus as it actually occurred. At the same time, portion Bo considers the Exodus from an internal point of view (and in this sense it is “the Torah of Moses”), while Beshalach gives us an external perspective (“the Torah of Aaron”).
The name of this portion, Bo, is taken from its opening words, “Then the Lord said to Moses: Go to Pharaoh.” But the name also alludes to the idea that the Jewish people had to go down to Egypt in order to extract from it what would become a part of their own spiritual heritage, the Divine sparks that were contained there. Egypt, as already noted, was the most highly developed civilization of that time. The Exodus of the Jews therefore had to happen only there, at the epicenter of the world’s civilizations, so that through the Jews the greatness of Egypt could become a foundation for the spiritual advancement of mankind.
The main theme of the Bo portion is the internal aspect of the Exodus – the Jews’ awareness of themselves as a distinct people, now separated from Egypt. Among Bo’s central themes are the change to a uniquely Jewish calendar, the Passover Seder, and the accession of a significant number of Egyptians to the Jewish Exodus. All of these – the calendar, the Passover Seder, and the process of giyyur (conversion to Judaism) – are fundamental concepts of Jewish identity.
The commandment to establish a calendar is the very first commandment that the Jewish people receive as a nation [59]. The calendar and holidays of every society reflect its basic value system, its “minimal catechism” that everyone is expected and assumed to know. And this is of course true of Jewish society as well. The arrangement of the Jewish lunar-solar calendar itself speaks of the Jewish mission in the world.
Egypt’s calendar was solar. It was adopted first by the Greeks and Romans, followed by European Christian civilization. The ancient world of the east, as represented fundamentally by Babylon, originally had a lunar calendar; Islamic civilization, with its lunar calendar, is the heir to Babylon in that regard. In contrast, the Jews upon leaving Egypt received a lunar-solar calendar, which integrates the western and eastern features of the ancient “western” world.
The Jewish nation transitioned to its own calendar only two weeks before the Exodus: “The Lord said to Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt: This month shall mark for you the beginning of the months; it shall be the first of the months of the year for you” (12:1-2). The month of Nisan had just begun, and that beginning had to be established according to the Jewish, not Egyptian, calendar. This had the immediate effect of further distancing the Jews from the Egyptian way of life. The new calendar oriented the Jewish nation not only to its freedom from Egypt, but also to realizing its uniquely universal role among the peoples of the world, by serving as the bridge between Babylon and Egypt.
Portion Bo's second topic is the Passover Seder. Passover celebrates the birth of the Jewish people, and sets the goal for all future Jewish life, namely: to bring humanity ever closer to the Almighty. In future times Passover and the Exodus would determine the trajectory of the world’s development and epitomize the idea of progress in the worldview of all of Western civilization.
Time in idolatrous culture is cyclical: Birth, maturation, aging, dying, and new birth – all these comprise the immutable circle of life. But in Jewish culture, time is a vector that emerges when the entire world pursues a common goal. The Exodus from Egypt created this Jewish vector of time. The Exodus determines that the universe has a purpose, that time, rather than being cyclical, has direction. In this sense the Exodus changed not only Jewish history but the worldview of mankind as a whole. From Judaism, both Christianity and Islam inherited the vector of time, as well as the sense of purpose and meaning in history, and conveyed that sense to most of the world’s population.
Finally, in the third topic of the Bo portion we learn that many foreigners joined the Jews upon their departure from Egypt, and became a part of the Jewish nation. This affiliation established the structure of our people for all time. The Jewish people are an open community that willingly receives new members. Any person from anywhere on earth who wishes to become a Jew can do so.
In this sense, the Jews are not a race. But, on the other hand, by no means does this imply that the Jewish people are to be considered a “congregation of proselytes” or a purely religious community. The descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob are the core of the Jewish people – proselytes join this already-existing nation. Although, according to the laws of Judaism, every boundary between those two is erased, which means that proselytes become full-fledged Jews, the ethnic core is nonetheless also preserved for all centuries to our time.
As a general rule, based on genetic research, we can say that two-thirds of the Jewish people today are descendants of the ancient Jewish nation, and one-third are those who have joined it later, or are their descendants. The Jewish people continue to retain their national identity and self-awareness, and to transmit their ancient Jewish heritage along lines of Jewish birth. But at the same time, Judaism and the Jewish nation are open to accession. This combination of tradition and openness, a hallmark of the Jewish people since their very creation, is one of their most important features.
10.2. The Plagues Build Momentum: Pharaoh’s Role on the World Stage
No person in history has undergone a program of persuasion so protracted and so intensive as Pharaoh did. But why was this necessary at all? Obviously, God could have brought the Jews out of Egypt completely against Pharaoh’s wishes and without obtaining his consent. Why was Pharaoh opinion so important?
Pharaoh ruled Egypt in both the political and cultural senses: he was the leader of Egypt. In that era Egypt was the center of world civilization, and the crown of human development. Thus, the direction chosen by Egypt would determine the future path of world history, and since Pharaoh led Egypt, the future of mankind depended on him. The responsibility that Pharaoh shouldered was enormous, as was his potential for influencing the future history of mankind.
The pressure on Pharaoh builds up slowly and gradually during the process of the Exodus, so that Pharaoh will become convinced step by step of the fallacies of his position. God’s objective is not to make Pharaoh obey, but to change Pharaoh’s perception, and this in turn will affect the entire surrounding world.
The Exodus is not about Pharaoh’s consent to emancipate the Jews; rather, it is – above all – a contest of whose history and culture will become the foundation for the further development of human civilization. Pharaoh believes that that foundation is Egypt, and Israel is secondary, but Moses takes the opposite stance.
In the upcoming, eighth plague, this dispute between Pharaoh and Moses reaches an entirely new level. Weekly portion Va’era ends after recounting the first seven plagues, and a new weekly portion begins: Bo, which recounts the three final plagues.
10.3. The Eighth Plague: Locusts (10:1-20)
The objective:
(1) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Go to Pharaoh. For I have hardened his heart and the hearts of his courtiers, in order that I may display these My signs among them,
(2) and that you may recount in the hearing of your sons and of your sons’ sons how I made a mockery of the Egyptians and how I displayed My signs among them — in order that you may know that I am the Lord.”
The setup:
(3) So Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh and said to him, “Thus says the Lord, the God of the Hebrews, ‘How long will you refuse to humble yourself before Me? Let My people go that they may worship Me.
(4) For if you refuse to let My people go, tomorrow I will bring locusts on your territory.
(5) They shall cover the surface of the land, so that no one will be able to see the land. They shall devour the surviving remnant that was left to you after the hail; and they shall eat away all your trees that grow in the field.
(6) Moreover, they shall fill your palaces and the houses of all your courtiers and of all the Egyptians — something that neither your fathers nor fathers’ fathers have seen from the day they appeared on earth to this day.’ ” With that he turned and left Pharaoh’s presence.
Pharaoh’s hesitation:
(7) Pharaoh’s courtiers said to him, “How long shall this one be a snare to us? Let the men go to worship the Lord their God! Are you not yet aware that Egypt is lost?”
(8) So Moses and Aaron were brought back to Pharaoh and he said to them, “Go, worship the Lord your God! Who are the ones to go?”
(9) Moses replied, “We will all go, young and old: we will go with our sons and daughters, our flocks and herds; for we must observe the Lord‘s festival.”
(10) But he said to them, “The Lord be with you the same as I mean to let your children go with you! Clearly, you are bent on mischief.
(11) No! You menfolk go and worship the Lord, since that is what you want.” And they were expelled from Pharaoh’s presence.
The actual plague:
(12) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Hold out your arm over the land of Egypt for the locusts, that they may come upon the land of Egypt and eat up all the grasses in the land, whatever the hail has left.”
(13) So Moses held out his rod over the land of Egypt, and the Lord drove an east wind over the land all that day and all night; and when morning came, the east wind had brought the locusts.
(14) Locusts invaded all the land of Egypt and settled within all the territory of Egypt in a thick mass; never before had there been so many, nor will there ever be so many again.
(15) They hid all the land from view, and the land was darkened; and they ate up all the grasses of the field and all the fruit of the trees which the hail had left, so that nothing green was left, of tree or grass of the field, in all the land of Egypt.
Pharaoh’s reaction:
(16) Pharaoh hurriedly summoned Moses and Aaron and said, “I stand guilty before the Lord your God and before you.
(17) Forgive my offense just this once, and plead with the Lord your God that He but remove this death from me.”
(18) So he left Pharaoh’s presence and pleaded with the Lord.
(19) The Lord caused a shift to a very strong west wind, which lifted the locusts and hurled them into the Sea of Reeds; not a single locust remained in all the territory of Egypt.
(20) But the Lord stiffened Pharaoh’s heart, and he would not let the Israelites go.
(1) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Go to Pharaoh”: These words have become the name of this portion itself. Says the Midrash: “Divinity now resides in Pharaoh’s house, and is revealed through him – through the plagues that have afflicted the Egyptians, and the punishments exacted from them. Go to Pharaoh, so that that Divinity will extend also to all of mankind.”
For I have hardened his heart and the hearts of his courtiers, in order that I may display these My signs among them: We have already noted that this “hardening” of Pharaoh’s heart allows him to not succumb to his travails. Thus, this “hardening” does not deprive Pharaoh of his freedom of choice, but rather affords him the opportunity make his own free and independent decisions. This is necessary for realizing the purpose of the Exodus. God’s objective is not victory but persuasion – to persuade Pharaoh and the Egyptians.
(2) And that you may recount in the hearing of your sons and of your sons’ sons how I made a mockery of the Egyptians and how I displayed My signs among them — in order that you may know that I am the Lord: In the future, the Ten Plagues that led up to the Exodus will become a foundation of Jewish self-identification, representing the Jews’ direct connection to God.
(4-6) I will bring locusts on your territory … Something that neither your fathers nor fathers’ fathers have seen from the day they appeared on earth to this day: A locust infestation of this magnitude does not occur in nature. Thus, it is not merely a rare occurrence, but a violation of the very laws of nature.
With that he turned and left Pharaoh’s presence: This never happened during any of the previous plagues. It reflects the ever-widening rift between Israel and Egypt.
(7) Pharaoh’s courtiers said to him … “Are you not yet aware that Egypt is lost?”: Egypt is dying not only a physical death, but also in the historical sense. It can no longer be a leading force in human history.
(8) So Moses and Aaron were brought back to Pharaoh: Pharaoh is now showing less respect for Moses and Aaron. This is his response to the beginning of the breakdown in relations that Moses himself has initiated.
And he said to them, “Go, worship the Lord your God! Who are the ones to go?”: Pharaoh backtracks and now capitulates to Moses’ earlier demands.
(9) Moses replied, “We will all go, young and old: we will go with our sons and daughters, our flocks and herds; for we must observe the Lord‘s festival”: As soon as Pharaoh is ready to let the Jews leave Egypt for offering sacrifices, Moses ups the ante and states openly that this is not just a short-term religious event, but a total and final Exodus. But Pharaoh (and the Egyptians) are not yet ready for that, and the process of persuasion continues.
(10) But he said to them, “The Lord be with you the same as I mean to let your children go with you! Clearly, you are bent on mischief”: Pharaoh is outraged. It is now clear to him that staging a religious event is just an excuse, and the real Jewish goal is to bring evil upon Egypt!
(11) No! You menfolk go and worship the Lord, since that is what you want.”: Rather than increasing your demands, you would do well simply to revert to your previous demands.
And they were expelled from Pharaoh’s presence: Pharaoh has Moses and Aaron forcefully removed. He is furious, because he now sees that he had incorrectly understood the entire situation.
(15) They hid all the land from view, and the land was darkened; and they ate up all the grasses of the field and all the fruit of the trees which the hail had left, so that nothing green was left, of tree or grass of the field, in all the land of Egypt: Egypt is now truly on the verge of death by starvation.
(16) Pharaoh hurriedly summoned Moses and Aaron: Just a little earlier (v. 8), Moses and Aaron “were brought back” to Pharaoh – almost by force, but now they are respectfully asked to return. Now that the situation has become unbearable for Pharaoh, he immediately shows his respect to Moses and Aaron.
(16-17) And said, “I stand guilty before the Lord your God and before you. Forgive my offense just this once, and plead with the Lord your God that He but remove this death from me”: The very real prospect of death to Egypt works well to motivate Pharaoh. He not only asks to abolish the plague, but even acknowledges his moral improbity. Each subsequent plague advances Pharaoh’s understanding of the world, and helps him to see and acknowledge his guilt.
(20) But the Lord stiffened Pharaoh’s heart, and he would not let the Israelites go: Pharaoh is frightened, but he is not yet convinced. It will be necessary to further harden Pharaoh’s heart, in order to preserve his freedom of choice.
10.4. The Ninth Plague: Darkness (10:21-27)
The actual plague:
(21) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Hold out your arm toward the sky that there may be darkness upon the land of Egypt, a darkness that can be touched.”
(22) Moses held out his arm toward the sky and thick darkness descended upon all the land of Egypt for three days.
(23) People could not see one another, and for three days no one could get up from where he was; but all the Israelites enjoyed light in their dwellings.
Pharaoh’s reaction:
(24) Pharaoh then summoned Moses and said, “Go, worship the Lord! Only your flocks and your herds shall be left behind; even your children may go with you.”
(25) But Moses said, “You yourself must provide us with sacrifices and burnt offerings to offer up to the Lord our God;
(26) our own livestock, too, shall go along with us — not a hoof shall remain behind: for we must select from it for the worship of the Lord our God; and we shall not know with what we are to worship the Lord until we arrive there.”
(27) But the Lord stiffened Pharaoh’s heart and he would not agree to let them go.
(21) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Hold out your arm toward the sky that there may be darkness upon the land of Egypt, a darkness that can be touched”: There are no advance warnings this time, or any expectation of repentance from Pharaoh, because the educational aspect of this plague is different.
(22) Moses held out his arm toward the sky and thick darkness descended upon all the land of Egypt for three days: A predetermined time limit is imposed on this darkness, because during this plague Pharaoh could not send for Moses, nor could Moses himself come to the palace. This plague finally sets the Jews completely apart from the Egyptians.
(23) People could not see one another, and for three days no one could get up from where he was: It is a thick darkness that is not merely the absence of light, but a very dense, even solid fog that hinders mobility and in which any kindling of fire is impossible. Each person exists in total isolation, and can only think about himself.
After the previous storm of successive catastrophes that have struck Egypt, the Egyptians are now being given a respite, a period of forced silence. Over these three days each of them ponders his own path, and decides whether to remain with Egypt, or to side with the Jewish people.
But all the Israelites enjoyed light in their dwellings: The sun is finally setting on Egypt. The light is now with Israel.
(24) Pharaoh then summoned Moses and said, “Go, worship the Lord! Only your flocks and your herds shall be left behind; even your children may go with you”: This is the first time that Pharaoh calls Moses and speaks to him even after the plague itself has ended, and not out of immediate need to end the disaster. Pharaoh assents almost completely to Moses’ demands. He tries only to detain the Jews’ livestock, hoping that this will force the people to return.
(25) But Moses said, “You yourself must provide us with sacrifices and burnt offerings to offer up to the Lord our God”: Pharaoh’s reeducation will be so complete that he too will want to participate in worshipping the Almighty. This cannot fail to impress the Egyptians and the Jews alike.
(26) Our own livestock, too, shall go along with us — not a hoof shall remain behind: for we must select from it for the worship of the Lord our God; and we shall not know with what we are to worship the Lord until we arrive there: In putting forth his demand for the Jews’ absolute departure, Moses nonetheless, for Pharaoh’s convenience and to allow him “to save face,” cloaks the demand in religious terms.
(27) But the Lord stiffened Pharaoh’s heart and he would not agree to let them go: The unbearable stress of the situation now makes it difficult for Pharaoh to offer any resistance. The Almighty therefore hardens his heart so that Pharaoh can still make his decision freely, and not in the heat of passion.
10.5. Moses’ Final Audience with Pharaoh (10:28 – 11:10)
The opening exchange:
(28) Pharaoh said to him, “Be gone from me! Take care not to see me again, for the moment you look upon my face you shall die.”
(29) And Moses replied, “You have spoken rightly. I shall not see your face again!”
God addresses Moses:
(11:1) And the Lord said to Moses, “I will bring but one more plague upon Pharaoh and upon Egypt; after that he shall let you go from here; indeed, when he lets you go, he will drive you out of here one and all.
(2) Tell the people to borrow, each man from his neighbor and each woman from hers, objects of silver and gold.”
(3) The Lord disposed the Egyptians favorably toward the people. Moreover, Moses himself was much esteemed in the land of Egypt, among Pharaoh’s courtiers and among the people.
Moses further addresses Pharaoh:
(4) Moses said, “Thus says the Lord: Toward midnight I will go forth among the Egyptians,
(5) and every first-born in the land of Egypt shall die, from the first-born of Pharaoh who sits on his throne to the first-born of the slave girl who is behind the millstones; and all the first-born of the cattle.
(6) And there shall be a loud cry in all the land of Egypt, such as has never been or will ever be again;
(7) but not a dog shall snarl at any of the Israelites, at man or beast — in order that you may know that the Lord makes a distinction between Egypt and Israel.
(8) Then all these courtiers of yours shall come down to me and bow low to me, saying, ‘Depart, you and all the people who follow you!’ After that I will depart.” And he left Pharaoh’s presence in hot anger.
The end result of the first nine plagues:
(9) Now the Lord had said to Moses, “Pharaoh will not heed you, in order that My marvels may be multiplied in the land of Egypt.”
(10) Moses and Aaron had performed all these marvels before Pharaoh, but the Lord had stiffened the heart of Pharaoh so that he would not let the Israelites go from his land.
(28) Pharaoh said to him, “Be gone from me! Take care not to see me again, for the moment you look upon my face you shall die”: In the literal sense Pharaoh no longer wants to see Moses, because he is unable to withstand any additional pressure.
But there is also a different underlying meaning here. Moses’ “looking upon Pharaoh’s face,” can be understood as a reference to the assimilation of elements of Egyptian culture by the Jews, in order to carry those elements out of Egypt, and later to integrate them properly into their future civilization. The meaning of Pharaoh’s words, “for the moment you (i.e., the Jews) look upon my face you shall die” is that this process is now complete, and any further absorption of Egyptian culture by the Jews can only prove harmful to them (Jacob and his family faced an analogous situation at the end of their twenty-year stay with Laban). It is this moment that precisely determines the need for the Jews, for their own internal well-being, to leave Egypt immediately.
(29) And Moses replied, “You have spoken rightly. I shall not see your face again!”: Moses acknowledges that the Jews have already completely absorbed any and all sparks of holiness that they should take with them from Egypt. And that, furthermore, any Egyptians who wished to join Israel have already done so. Thus, there is no need for any further meetings between Israel and Egypt.
(1) And the Lord said to Moses, “I will bring but one more plague upon Pharaoh and upon Egypt; after that he shall let you go from here: Moses has not yet left Pharaoh’s presence (which happens only in v. 8), but God interrupts Moses’ conversation with Pharaoh in order to correct his position (“Indeed, when he lets you go, he will drive you out…”).
Moreover, Moses must inform Pharaoh of the impending final plague. But since Moses can never see Pharaoh again once he leaves this last meeting, he must receive the prophecy of the last plague during this same conversation with Pharaoh that is already in progress. Thus, this is the first (and only) time that Moses receives a prophecy right there in Pharaoh’s palace.
Indeed, when he lets you go, he will drive you out of here one and all: Egypt will not only allow the Jews to go, but will actually expel them. The plague of the first-born will radically alter the attitude of Egyptian society toward the Jews.
(2) Tell the people to borrow … objects of silver and gold: Although the Jews have already learned a great deal from the Egyptians, and the migration of certain elements of the Egyptian population to the Jewish side has already been completed internally, this does not mean that the release of sparks from Egypt is already complete. God stresses that the Jews must also take with them “sparks” of a different type – gold and silver – as they leave Egypt.
(3) The Lord disposed the Egyptians favorably toward the people: The transfer of a substantial portion of Egypt’s gold and silver to the Jews was not based on ordinary relations between the two peoples, but was the result of a special, ad hoc decision by the Almighty.
Moreover, Moses himself was much esteemed in the land of Egypt: Due to Moses’ authority over the forces of nature in bringing the plagues, he has achieved prominence among the Egyptians, which greatly facilitates obtaining their gold and silver. Moses’ “esteemed” position also motivated many Egyptians to join the departing Jews. On the other hand, since these people deified Moses as a personality, it was they who, during his extended absence (and assumed disappearance), demanded a replacement for him – the golden calf. And that is why God tells Moses, “Your people, whom you brought out of the land of Egypt, have acted basely” (32: 7).
The Egyptian wealth that the Jews brought out of Egypt was later subjected to “analysis and separation.” A part of the Egyptian gold was used to create the golden calf (later destroyed by being burnt and ground to powder, 32:20), while the remaining part was needed to build the Tabernacle, the “portable Temple.” This division of outcomes for the Egyptian gold likewise represents the proper Jewish attitude toward the spiritual wealth that the Jews brought with them from the Diaspora to the Land of Israel. A part of it was associated with idolatry and had to be destroyed, while the remaining part was used to build the Temple.
(4) Moses said, “Thus says the Lord”: When God is finished speaking to Moses, Moses returns to his conversation with Pharaoh, and informs him what he should expect in the near future, and how things will further develop.
Thus says the Lord: “Toward midnight I will go forth among the Egyptians”: This last plague, unlike the previous ones, is executed not by an angel, but by none other than the Almighty himself. This was the first time ever that an entire civilization en masse (i.e., Egypt) was deemed worthy of witnessing an historic Divine revelation. But because of Egypt’s depraved moral condition, this revelation became a destructive force.
(5) And every first-born in the land of Egypt shall die, from the first-born of Pharaoh who sits on his throne to the first-born of the slave girl who is behind the millstones; and all the first-born of the cattle: God had mentioned the plague of the death of the firstborns at the very beginning of His first dialogue with Moses. “I have said to you, ‘Let My son go, that he may worship Me,’ yet you refuse to let him go. Now I will slay your first-born son’ (4:23)”. This was significant, because this final plague represents not only the death of certain individuals, the firstborn of each Egyptian family, but the death of Egypt itself as the firstborn – Egypt's fall from grace as the dominant world power. But the full extent of the impending devastation – total annihilation of all firstborns – it is only now becoming clear.
Rabbi A. I. Kook notes that Jews are here undergoing a process of liberation from the natural order, and this process happens in two stages.
The first stage is the raising of the Jewish firstborns over their Egyptian counterparts, by virtue of the plague of the death of the Egyptian firstborns, and the commandment that the Jews must redeem their firstborns (13:2,12).
The second stage is achieved when the Levites are replaced by the Jewish firstborns for performing the Temple service [60].
These two stages correspond to Tohorah (purification), and Kedushah (holiness), respectively. Tohorah takes place through the redemption of the firstborns, which purifies the natural order from the folly of Egyptian conceptions. And Kedushah, the transition to Jewish holiness specifically, is achieved by replacing the firstborns with the Levites (all cultures recognize the special status of firstborns, but Levites exist only among the people of Israel).
Every first-born in the land of Egypt: This does not necessarily mean that literally every firstborn died. The Torah is describing here only the “overall situation” (just as we need not understand “all the livestock of the Egyptians died” in the plague of the pestilence [9:6] to mean that all livestock perished without exception). In particular, tradition relates that although Pharaoh himself was also a firstborn, he was not affected by this tenth plague, because it was God’s plan for Pharaoh to chase down the Jews and die in the Red Sea. And among those Egyptians who had already decided to join Israel, it would seem that their firstborns too remained alive, and left Egypt with Israel the next morning.
From the first-born of Pharaoh who sits on his throne to the first-born of the slave girl who is behind the millstones; and all the first-born of the cattle: Not only Pharaoh and his entourage, but the entire Egyptian nation was guilty of oppressing the Jews. The punishment therefore falls not only on the guilty. It is a catastrophe of widespread destruction and intimidation.
(8) And he left Pharaoh’s presence in hot anger: Although the Torah does not tell us the actual reason for Moses’ anger, we could suggest the following.
Moses, an Egyptian prince in his upbringing, still has some sympathy for Egypt as the center of world civilization. At the beginning of his conversation with Pharaoh, perhaps Moses still believed that the plagues had already ended, that the Jews had by now absorbed all the “sparks” they needed to take from Egypt, and they could now leave Egypt without further ado. But now it turns out that there will be yet another plague, a plague far more severe than any that preceded it.
Although God had already informed Moses that there would be one more plague (11:1), it is possible that Moses understood that only in the general sense, and he is now shocked and even enraged when he learns of the full extent of the impending catastrophe.
But it is also possible that Moses had been hoping for further dialogue with Pharaoh, in the belief that he could still persuade Pharaoh to mend his ways. But now that Pharaoh has categorically rejected the possibility of any further dialogue, Moses understands that the situation cannot be resolved peaceably, and that catastrophic death and destruction cannot be avoided. This is why Moses leaves Pharaoh’s presence “in hot anger.”
(9) Now the Lord had said to Moses, “Pharaoh will not heed you, in order that My marvels may be multiplied in the land of Egypt”: The multitude of plagues is necessary in order to re-educate both the Egyptians and the Jews. The Ten Plagues shook the very foundations of Egyptian civilization, its self-confidence and complacency, and opened the path for humanity to receive the Divine Message.
Chapter 11. Establishment of the Calendar and Pesach
11.1. The Commandment to Establish a Calendar (12:1-2)
(1) The Lord said to Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt:
(2) This month shall mark for you the beginning of the months; it shall be the first of the months of the year for you.
(1) The Lord said: God addresses Moses and Aaron on the first day of the month of Nisan, two weeks before the Exodus.
In every society the calendar and its system of holidays create a shared memory and a set of common values. They are thus a highly essential element of communal identity. Therefore, the very first commandments that the Jewish people receive as a nation are the commandments to establish a calendar and to celebrate Passover.
The shift from the Egyptian calendar to a new, Jewish one completes the Jews’ transformation to a people entirely distinct from Egypt, and they can now see themselves as an entirely separate and independent people.
To Moses and Aaron: This revelation is addressed to Moses and Aaron together, because the new calendar is not established by fiat from Above, but by mutual consent of God and the Jewish nation together. Moses and Aaron thus appear here as representatives of God and the people, respectively.
Every month God arranges for a new moon to occur, and the people decide (that is, the Sanhedrin on behalf of the people determines) on which day each new month begins, and in which years it is necessary to intercalate an additional, thirteenth month.
In the land of Egypt: The giving of the Torah and its commandments begins not at Sinai, but in Egypt, at the onset of the Exodus.
(2) This month: The word zeh, which means “this” (or “such”), always indicates something that is clearly evident and visible. Here too, it refers to the appearance of the thin crescent of the new moon that is visible on the first evening following each monthly lunation.
For you: Establishing the months of the calendar will to some extent be entrusted to you, the Sanhedrin, who are empowered to adjust the day on which each new month begins. The Jewish months (and thus, the festivals) are very different in this respect from the Sabbath and its observance, which are determined simply by an endless cycle of seven-day intervals that never depends on any human decision, proclamation, or action.
The beginning of the months: The months are determined by the moon. A new month begins when the crescent of the new moon first becomes visible, i.e., shortly after lunation [61].
It shall be the first of the months of the year for you: The Jewish year begins with Nisan, the month in which the Jews left Egypt, which occurs near the beginning of spring. Thus, the Jewish calendar shifts the beginning of the year from autumn, as was then customary in the entire Middle East, to springtime. This shift reflects a decidedly optimistic approach to life and to the world – the sense of a new beginning, the opening of a new path for humanity.
Of the months of the year: Jewish tradition understands “months of the year” (emphasis on “year”) to mean that the cycle of the months must always be kept aligned with the seasons. That is, although the months are determined by the moon, the annual solar cycle must also be observed [62], such that the year always begins in the spring [63], as determined by the sun.
Thus, the calendar that the Jews received before the Exodus differed in two essential points from the calendars of the surrounding nations: It is lunar-solar, and its years always begin in the spring. The lunar-solar structure of the Jewish calendar reflects the Jewish emphasis on unifying Egyptian and Babylonian spiritual values. And having the year always begin in springtime demonstrates the optimistic nature of the Jewish worldview.
11.2. The Commandment to Slaughter and Eat the Paschal Lamb (12:3-13)
(3) Speak to the whole community of Israel and say that on the tenth of this month each of them shall take a lamb to a family, a lamb to a household.
(4) But if the household is too small for a lamb, let him share one with a neighbor who dwells nearby, in proportion to the number of persons: you shall contribute for the lamb according to what each household will eat.
(5) Your lamb shall be without blemish, a yearling male; you may take it from the sheep or from the goats.
(6) You shall keep watch over it until the fourteenth day of this month; and all the assembled congregation of the Israelites shall slaughter it at twilight.
(7) They shall take some of the blood and put it on the two doorposts and the lintel of the houses in which they are to eat it.
(8) They shall eat the flesh that same night; they shall eat it roasted over the fire, with unleavened bread and with bitter herbs.
(9) Do not eat any of it raw, or cooked in any way with water, but roasted — head, legs, and entrails — over the fire.
(10) You shall not leave any of it over until morning; if any of it is left until morning, you shall burn it.
(11) This is how you shall eat it: your loins girded, your sandals on your feet, and your staff in your hand; and you shall eat it hurriedly: it is a passover offering to the Lord.
(12) For that night I will go through the land of Egypt and strike down every first-born in the land of Egypt, both man and beast; and I will mete out punishments to all the gods of Egypt, I the Lord.
(13) And the blood on the houses where you are staying shall be a sign for you: when I see the blood I will pass over you, so that no plague will destroy you when I strike the land of Egypt.
(3) Speak to the whole community of Israel and say: So long as the plagues were underway Moses did not address himself to the Jews. It was a period of internal transformation, when the Jews gradually came to see themselves as a distinct nation. But now the time has come to translate national self-awareness into action.
(3-6) On the tenth of this month each of them shall take a lamb to a family, a lamb to a household … You shall keep watch over it until the fourteenth day of this month: Keeping the lamb at home for four days was an important aspect of the Jews’ education. That lamb was a deity to the Egyptians, who could not bear the thought that the Jews were going to slaughter the lamb and eat it. Such defiant indifference demonstrated openly that the Jews had no fear whatsoever of Egyptian gods.
Guarding the lamb for four days was only a one-time requirement for the very first Passover observance at the Exodus itself. It did not apply to Passover observances in any later time.
A lamb to a household: The bedrock of society is the family.
(4) But if the household is too small for a lamb, let him share one with a neighbor: Uniting neighboring families is important for creating a sense of national solidarity.
(5) Your lamb shall be without blemish: The lamb must have no imperfections or deformities.
Without blemish a yearling male: There is symbolism in these three aspects of the Passover sacrifice. “Without blemish” represents unity, “a yearling” is symbolic of concentration or compression, and “male” – of independence.
A lamb from the sheep or from the goats: Hebrew seh is a general term for “a young animal of smaller horned livestock,” i.e., a sheep or a goat. In this commentary we follow the accepted translation, “lamb.”
(6) You shall keep watch over it until the fourteenth day of this month: That is, until the eve of the full moon, which occurs on the fifteenth of the lunar month. The moon, which symbolizes Israel, appears then in its full radiance (in Jewish tradition the Moon is symbolic of Israel, because, like the moon, which only reflects the light of the sun, so do the people of Israel illuminate the world not with their own light, but with the light that they receive from God).
And all the assembled congregation of the Israelites shall slaughter it at twilight: Literally, “between the two evenings,” i.e., between the two temporal boundaries that delineate the last part of the day: noon and sunset. The Passover lamb was to be slaughtered sometime during the interval between those two.
(7) They shall take some of the blood and put it on the two doorposts and the lintel of the houses in which they are to eat it: Thus the Jews’ declare that they are an independent nation that holds itself distinct from the Egyptians.
In later generations, the blood of the Passover sacrifice (and other sacrifices generally) was sprinkled upon the altar. Each Jewish house here functions as a Temple. The Jewish practice of affixing a Mezuzah to each doorpost, as required by the Torah (Deut. 6:9, 11:20), is, inter alia, a remembrance of the doorposts (“mezuzot”) that featured prominently here in the Exodus story.
The Midrash adds that at that time (two weeks before the Exodus) the Jews also received the commandment of circumcision, because the uncircumcised are forbidden to eat the Passover sacrifice (see 13.3, commentary on v. 12:48). Thus, the blood on the doorposts is also associated with the blood of circumcision.
(8) With unleavened bread: Later we will learn that the obligation to eat matzah (unleavened bread) is connected with the swiftness of the Exodus. The Exodus happened so quickly and suddenly that the dough that had been prepared the day before to rise had no time to ferment (12:39). But this commandment was given even before the Exodus occurred, which implies that the historical justification of matzah – that the dough did not have time to ferment – was all part of the original Divine plan, and not just an accident of the Exodus story.
With unleavened bread and with bitter herbs they shall eat it: Matzah and bitter herbs are the symbols of freedom and slavery, respectively. The commandment to eat them together symbolizes acceptance of the unity of the Creator, Who is the author of both freedom and slavery.
(9) Do not eat any of it raw, or cooked in any way with water, but roasted — head, legs, and entrails — over the fire: When meat is cooked in water, it falls apart, but when roasted, it becomes more concentrated. These laws concerning the preparation of the Passover sacrifice, with its “head, legs, and entrails,” further emphasize unity and concentration.
(10) You shall not leave any of it over until morning; if any of it is left until morning, you shall burn it: Here too we see in the Passover Seder the emphasis on the theme of concentration. First in concentration of time: “You shall not leave any of it over until morning,” and later (v. 22) in concentration of place: “None of you shall go outside the door of his house until morning”
(11) This is how you shall eat it: your loins girded, your sandals on your feet, and your staff in your hand: This demonstrates Israel’s readiness for the Exodus, which must happen quickly and without delay.
And you shall eat it hurriedly: Haste is an essential theme of the Exodus, emphasizing that the entire Exodus is miraculous in nature. Natural processes need time for both their preparation and implementation, but miracles require neither. The haste of the Exodus underscores this point.
It is a passover offering to the Lord: In the Hebrew this is, simply, Pesach hu la-Shem, “It is a Passover for the Lord.” The word “offering” (i.e., sacrifice) is implied.
As the Torah itself explains below (v. 27), when the Lord smote the Egyptians, He “passed over” – pasach – the Jewish houses, leaving their inhabitants unharmed. Hence the Hebrew word Pesach, “Passover,” a noun derived from the verb pasach.
(12) For that night I will go through the land of Egypt: We noted earlier that the Exodus has the character of direct Divine intervention. God directly intervened in history to perform the Exodus Himself, rather than having it done through angels, or other agents at His disposal. This demonstrates that the Exodus transcended the very the laws of nature. Angels must act within the confines of natural law, but direct Divine intervention by the Almighty Himself respects no such limitation.
And strike down every first-born in the land of Egypt … mete out punishments to all the gods of Egypt: The effect of the plague of the firstborn was to defeat the Egyptian deities. Thus, with this plague Israel is finally and completely liberated from subjugation to Egypt and its gods.
(13) And the blood on the houses where you are staying shall be a sign for you: “A sign for you” – that is, for the Jews themselves, and not for God. In order to be saved, the Children of Israel had to acknowledge their Jewishness, their unique connection with God.
When I see the blood, I will pass over you: The blood smeared on the doorpost demonstrates that the house is a Jewish house, and its inhabitants identify with the Jewish people.
11.3. “Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread” (12:14-20)
(14) This day shall be to you one of remembrance: you shall celebrate it as a festival to the Lord throughout the ages; you shall celebrate it as an institution for all time.
(15) Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread; on the very first day you shall remove leaven from your houses, for whoever eats leavened bread from the first day to the seventh day, that person shall be cut off from Israel.
(16) You shall celebrate a sacred occasion on the first day, and a sacred occasion on the seventh day; no work at all shall be done on them; only what every person is to eat, that alone may be prepared for you.
(17) You shall observe the [Feast of] Unleavened Bread, for on this very day I brought your ranks out of the land of Egypt; you shall observe this day throughout the ages as an institution for all time.
(18) In the first month, from the fourteenth day of the month at evening, you shall eat unleavened bread until the twenty-first day of the month at evening.
(19) No leaven shall be found in your houses for seven days. For whoever eats what is leavened, that person shall be cut off from the community of Israel, whether he is a stranger or a citizen of the country.
(20) You shall eat nothing leavened; in all your settlements you shall eat unleavened bread.
(14) This day shall be to you one of remembrance: you shall celebrate it as a festival to the Lord throughout the ages: Here the text transitions from the specific requirements of “the Egyptian Passover” – taking the lamb in advance, smearing the lintel with blood, girding the loins, etc. – to a description of how “Passover for the generations” is to be observed.
You shall celebrate it as an institution for all time: Vivid narratives are a prerequisite for creating an enduring national consciousness. The Exodus would become one of many such stories in the future, and to that end, the plagues had to be colorful and develop gradually. The Passover festivities are unusually dramatic, and the Exodus itself was “hurried.”
(15) Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread: The Passover celebration, which begins with sacrificing of the Paschal lamb on the eve of the holiday, and consuming it on the first night, then continues with eating matzah all seven days. Because matzah is eaten along with the Passover sacrifice (v.8), continuing to eat matzah throughout all of Passover further creates an “aftertaste” to that sacrifice.
Whoever eats leavened bread – that person shall be cut off from Israel: Not only in the sense that the Almighty will cut him off from his people, for he is himself the cause of that excision as well. The Exodus establishes the purpose and meaning of the Jewish people’s existence. A Jew who eats leaven on Passover denies this purpose and meaning, and therefore ceases to be part of the Jewish nation, and is exterminated from its midst.
(16) You shall celebrate a sacred occasion on the first day, and a sacred occasion on the seventh day: As it later turns out, the observance of the first day of Passover as a “sacred occasion” is a remembrance of the Exodus itself, while the last (seventh) day recalls the crossing of the Red Sea, which, according to tradition, occurred on the seventh day following the Exodus. But the Passover laws of this passage establish these “sacred occasions” in advance. That is, events as they will eventually develop are foreseen by the Torah even before they actually occur.
No work at all shall be done on them: To this extent, the Jewish festivals are like the Shabbat (Sabbath) that the Jews observe each and every Saturday.
Only what every person is to eat, that alone may be prepared for you: But the laws of the Jewish festivals are more lenient than those of Shabbat, in that it is permitted to cook on the festivals. There are two main reasons for this leniency:
· While the central theme of Shabbat is rest, the idea of the festivals is different – they are meant to afford enjoyment and pleasure. Tasty, freshly prepared food is important for achieving that.
· Shabbat commemorates the Creation (Gen. 2:3, Exod. 20:11, 31:17), in which humans did not participate, whereas Passover and the other festivals commemorate the Exodus and other events in Jewish history, in which the Jewish people were directly involved. The observance of Shabbat therefore demands greater passivity, while the festivals allow, and indeed require, a certain level of activity.
(19) No leaven shall be found in your houses for seven days. For whoever eats what is leavened, that person shall be cut off from the community of Israel, whether he is a stranger or a citizen of the country: One of Egyptian civilization’s outstanding achievements was the invention of leavened bread, which made it possible to create reserves of food for long-term storage [64]. Upon leaving Egypt, the Jewish nation declares a clean break with the civilization that gave rise to it, but at the same time, Israel inherits Egypt’s achievements. The abstention from leavened bread, which demonstrates Jewish independence from Egyptian civilization, therefore lasts only one week, while during the rest of the year Israel may benefit from Egypt’s achievements.
11.4. The Passover Sacrifice, and the Retelling of the Passover Story to for the Generations (12:21-28)
(21) Moses then summoned all the elders of Israel and said to them, “Go, pick out lambs for your families, and slaughter the passover offering.
(22) Take a bunch of hyssop, dip it in the blood that is in the basin, and apply some of the blood that is in the basin to the lintel and to the two doorposts. None of you shall go outside the door of his house until morning.
(23) For when the Lord goes through to smite the Egyptians, He will see the blood on the lintel and the two doorposts, and the Lord will pass over the door and not let the Destroyer enter and smite your home.
(24) “You shall observe this as an institution for all time, for you and for your descendants.
(25) And when you enter the land that the Lord will give you, as He has promised, you shall observe this rite.
(26) And when your children ask you, ‘What do you mean by this rite?’
(27) you shall say, ‘It is the passover sacrifice to the Lord, because He passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt when He smote the Egyptians, but saved our houses.’ ” The people then bowed low in homage.
(28) And the Israelites went and did so; just as the Lord had commanded Moses and Aaron, so they did.
(21) Moses then summoned all the elders of Israel: This is happening on the same day that God addressed Moses and Aaron, i.e., on the first day of the month of Nisan, two weeks before the Exodus.
Slaughter the passover offering: This means the Passover sacrifice, the Paschal Lamb.
(22) Take a bunch of hyssop, dip it in the blood that is in the basin, and apply some of the blood that is in the basin to the lintel and to the two doorposts: The point of the Passover sacrifice is not merely to slaughter it, but to proclaim its meaning to the entire world.
None of you shall go outside the door of his house until morning: Every aspect of the Passover sacrifice and its observance emphasizes unity and isolation: No participant may leave the house all night, its bones must not be broken but left whole, it must be completely consumed in the course of a single night, and any part of it that remains until morning must be burned.
But what is the meaning of this unity and isolation? We would suggest that it is the following. If the Jewish people are to influence humanity, they must “go home and stay at home,” concentrating first on themselves. That introspection is designed to clarify and strengthen the unique identity of the Jewish people. We must properly build our own lives before we can influence humanity. On the holiday commemorating the birth of the Jewish nation, Israel must therefore sit indoors, in the company of only their fellow Jews.
(23) For when the Lord goes through to smite the Egyptians, He will see the blood on the lintel and the two doorposts, and the Lord will pass over the door and not let the Destroyer enter and smite your home: Because the blood demonstrates trust in the Almighty’s instructions, it therefore has the power to save.
(24) “You shall observe this as an institution for all time, for you and for your descendants: The Passover celebration has a unique ability to bind the Jewish nation across the generations.
(25) And when you enter the land that the Lord will give you, as He has promised, you shall observe this rite: Passover is inextricably linked with the Land of Israel and, in the Diaspora, with the desire to return there (that is why, as we will shall see later, the “wilderness generation” – who by God’s decree died off in the wilderness and could not enter the Land of Israel – stopped celebrating Passover from the moment of that decree).
(26) And when your children ask you, ‘What do you mean by this rite’?: Jewish tradition always encourages us to ask questions, rather than blindly accepting its assertions without discussion or critical assessment.
(27) You shall say, ‘It is the passover sacrifice to the Lord, because He passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt when He smote the Egyptians, but saved our houses.’: The telling and retelling of Jewish history is an integral part of the Jewish religion.
The people then bowed low in homage: The people fully accept the “nationalist” but not the “religious” version of the Exodus. They rejoice at hearing that they will have their own land, the Land of Israel, and that they will have many generations of future descendants.
(28) And the Israelites went and did so; just as the Lord had commanded Moses and Aaron, so they did: The Children of Israel made their preparations for Passover and for the Exodus precisely as Moses and Aaron had commanded them.
And yet, matzah is nowhere mentioned throughout this passage. It is not entirely clear from the text of the Torah whether the commandment “Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread” (v. 15) was then not yet established, and pertains only to the celebration of Passover in future times (“Passover for the generations”), or it was a requirement for this first Passover as well (the “Egyptian Passover”).
In other words, when the Jews left Egypt, were they allowed to take leavened dough with them? Or could they bring with them matzah exclusively, and it was only the “mixed multitude” who, upon joining the Jews at the Exodus, brought raw dough with them out of Egypt? (See v. 38-39 below).
The Torah is intentionally ambiguous on this point, since both possibilities are equally essential to our understanding of further events.
Chapter 12. The Exodus from Egypt
12.1. The Death of the Firstborns (12:29-32)
(29) In the middle of the night the Lord struck down all the first-born in the land of Egypt, from the first-born of Pharaoh who sat on the throne to the first-born of the captive who was in the dungeon, and all the first-born of the cattle.
(30) And Pharaoh arose in the night, with all his courtiers and all the Egyptians — because there was a loud cry in Egypt; for there was no house where there was not someone dead.
(31) He summoned Moses and Aaron in the night and said, “Up, depart from among my people, you and the Israelites with you! Go, worship the Lord as you said!
(32) Take also your flocks and your herds, as you said, and begone! And may you bring a blessing upon me also!”
(29) All the first-born in the land of Egypt, from the first-born of Pharaoh … to the first-born of the captive who was in the dungeon, and all the first-born of the cattle: This was the destruction of the very essence of Egypt, which considered itself the firstborn of all mankind.
(30) And Pharaoh arose in the night, with all his courtiers and all the Egyptians — because there was a loud cry in Egypt; for there was no house where there was not someone dead: In all the previous plagues only Pharaoh himself reacted; it was not the prerogative of the Egyptian people themselves to act. But now all of Egypt is in an uproar, and Pharaoh is only following their lead.
(31) He summoned Moses and Aaron in the night: Although Pharaoh’s permission to leave was granted during night, the Jews left Egypt only in the morning. This point is especially significant in connection with the observance of the Passover commandments, as we shall discuss later.
And said, “Up, depart from among my people”: Pharaoh finally acknowledges that the Jews have ceased to be a part of the Egyptian people.
(32-33) Go, worship the Lord as you said! … And may you bring a blessing upon me also!: Pharaoh is now asking the Jews for their blessings. This means that the leading place in history henceforth belongs to Israel, and not Egypt.
We must give Pharaoh a great deal of credit for managing his country with such tremendous composure under incredibly difficult conditions. And especially for not forgetting to ask Moses and Aaron to bless him (and through him all of Egypt), now that he sees and understands that all blessings henceforth come through Israel.
12.2. “The Egyptians urged the people on, impatient to have them leave” (12:33-36)
(33) The Egyptians urged the people on, impatient to have them leave the country, for they said, “We shall all be dead.”
(34) So the people took their dough before it was leavened, their kneading bowls wrapped in their cloaks upon their shoulders.
(35) The Israelites had done Moses’ bidding and borrowed from the Egyptians objects of silver and gold, and clothing.
(36) And the Lord had disposed the Egyptians favorably toward the people, and they let them have their request; thus they stripped the Egyptians.
(33-34) The Egyptians urged the people on, impatient to have them leave the country … So the people took their dough before it was leavened, their kneading bowls wrapped in their cloaks: As noted earlier, this episode in the story of the Exodus has two possible interpretations.
According to the first interpretation, “the people” who took their unleavened dough are Jews, and the seven-day ban on leaven applies only to the future, to subsequent Passover celebrations (that is, to “Passover for the generations”), and has nothing to do with the Egyptian Passover. By this reading, the Jews left Egypt “with their kneading bowls,” not yet knowing that they would bake matzah from this dough. Later that matzah became a symbol of the hurried Exodus.
In this case, the words “The Egyptians urged the people on, impatient to have them leave the country” emphasize that, notwithstanding all the Divine directives, the Jews were not yet completely ready to leave Egypt, and the Egyptians had to force them out (recall by analogy how the angels had to lead Lot out of Sodom by force – Gen. 19:16).
The alternate reading, on the other hand, distinguishes between “the people” and “the Children of Israel,” and suggests that “the people” who brought their unleavened dough with them are not Jews, but pro-Jewish Egyptians, the eirev rav (“mixed multitude”), who joined the Jews and left Egypt with them.
If so, the words “urged the people on” refer to these “pro-Jewish Egyptians” who, although they had already joined the Jews in the religious sense, were nonetheless not planning to leave Egypt, but the Egyptian masses forced them out after the death of the firstborns. It is clear, then, that these Egyptians did not have pre-prepared matzah; they only had the dough that they carried with them.
(35) The Israelites had done Moses’ bidding and borrowed from the Egyptians objects of silver and gold, and clothing: Moses has thus fulfilled God's special request (11:2), in accordance with God’s promise to Abraham: “But I will execute judgment on the nation they shall serve, and in the end they shall go free with great wealth” (Gen. 15:14).
The Jews took with them the wealth of Egypt, both materially and spiritually. From a material point of view, it was a fair payment for centuries of slave labor and for their abandoned houses and property. Moreover, for their proper self-respect moving forward it was important for the Jews to feel that they are no longer poor slaves, but a free and affluent people.
(Judaism also applied this principle to Jewish life in the future: “If a fellow Hebrew, man or woman, is sold to you, he shall serve you six years, and in the seventh year you shall set him free. When you set him free, do not let him go empty-handed: Furnish him out of the flock, threshing floor, and vat, with which the Lord your God has blessed you. Bear in mind that you were slaves in the land of Egypt and the Lord your God redeemed you; therefore I enjoin this commandment upon you today.” – Deut. 15:13).
In the spiritual sense, the Jews had to take with them “the gold and silver” (that is, the very best) of Egyptian culture and civilization, in order to integrate it later into Jewish tradition, and into their daily life in the land of Israel.
(36) And the Lord had disposed the Egyptians favorably toward the people, and they let them have their request; thus they stripped the Egyptians: If we distinguish between “the Children of Israel” and “the people,” such that the former are Jews, and the latter are pro-Jewish Egyptians – the “mixed multitude” – then it was these Egyptians who stripped Egypt. They performed that “stripping” not only in the literal sense (since the Egyptians would obviously be more inclined to give gold and silver to other Egyptians than they would to share it with the Jews), but also in the spiritual sense, since they were the country's true spiritual elite, the “gold of Egypt,” and their departure itself “stripped” (devastated) Egypt.
The Egyptian heritage of this “mixed multitude” subsequently became a positive influence within Judaism, thus creating a connection between the Jews and the peoples of the world.
12.3. The Long-Awaited Exodus, and the “Mixed Multitude” (12:37-39)
(37) The Israelites journeyed from Raamses to Succoth, about six hundred thousand men on foot, aside from children.
(38) Moreover, a mixed multitude went up with them, and very much livestock, both flocks and herds.
(39) And they baked unleavened cakes of the dough that they had taken out of Egypt, for it was not leavened, since they had been driven out of Egypt and could not delay; nor had they prepared any provisions for themselves.
(37) From Raamses: Raamses was one of the “garrison cities” that the Jews built for the Egyptians (1:11).
To Succoth: The geographical location of this place is uncertain. But since we read a little later (13:20), “They set out from Succoth, and encamped at Etham, at the edge of the wilderness,” we can infer that Succoth is fairly close to the Egyptian border.
However, the fact that the identity of Succoth as an actual place is so unclear suggests that there might be a different, less literal way to understand this passage.
We note that in Lev. 23:42, when explaining the background for the festival of Succoth (Sukkot), the Torah says: “In order that future generations may know that I made the Israelite people live in succoth (literally, “huts”) when I brought them out of the land of Egypt.”
Thus, we can also understand “from Raamses to Succoth” as expressing contrast. They left Raamses, a city of Egyptian wealth and abundance, and set out for the wilderness – barren, austere, and unpopulated.
About six hundred thousand men on foot, aside from children: That is, there were that many adult men. If we consider also the women and children, the total number of Jews who left Egypt would be some three to four times greater, or as many as three million strong.
(38) Moreover, a mixed multitude went up with them: This is the eirev rav, literally, “an enormous agglomeration,” but traditionally rendered into English as it is here: a “mixed multitude.” These were non-Jews who joined the Jewish people and left Egypt with them at the Exodus, and later became Jews.
The accession of proselytes to the Jewish people is extremely important in Judaism. As already mentioned, the Almighty’s original plan was for all of Egypt to become a part of (or, as it were, annexed to) the Jewish nation, in order to effect a complete yetzi’at mitzrayim – “the exodus of Egypt” from idolatrous practices. Although this did not actually happen, the Egyptians who joined the Jewish nation can be seen as partially realizing that plan.
The mission of the Jewish people is to bring all of humanity closer to God. The accession of proselytes creates a bridge between the Jews and the nations of the world, and Jewish ideas are transmitted to all of mankind through this bridge.
Even so, the accession of proselytes is far from an easy process. Often, proselytes will at first fall short in their understanding of the Jewish worldview (in fact, the Torah speaks to this point when it suggests that it was the “mixed multitude” who were behind the creation of the golden calf). But under no circumstances should the eirev rav be perceived as superfluous. Quite the contrary, they are a vital component of the Jewish people, without whom the Jewish mission cannot be realized.
(39) And they baked unleavened cakes of the dough that they had taken out of Egypt, for it was not leavened, since they had been driven out of Egypt and could not delay; nor had they prepared any provisions for themselves: As already noted, this verse can be read in two different ways, as referring either to the Jews, or to the “mixed multitude.”
12.4. Israel’s 430-Year Stay in Egypt (12:40-42)
(40) The length of time that the Israelites lived in Egypt was four hundred and thirty years;
(41) at the end of the four hundred and thirtieth year, to the very day, all the ranks of the Lord departed from the land of Egypt.
(42) That was for the Lord a night of vigil to bring them out of the land of Egypt; that same night is the Lord‘s, one of vigil for all the children of Israel throughout the ages.
(40) The length of time that the Israelites lived in Egypt was four hundred and thirty years: If we make the calculation according to the chronology given above (6:18), we see that 430 years could not have elapsed from the moment Jacob’s family came to Egypt until the Exodus. Kohath, Levi’s son, was among those who came to Egypt with Jacob (Gen. 46:11), and all the years of his life (133) and of his son Amram (137) and of Amram’s son Moses until the Exodus (80) do not add up to 430 – especially since the years of their lives overlap, rather than being consecutive.
Jewish tradition tells us that the 430 years of Egyptian bondage begin from the “Covenant between the Parts” which God concluded with Abraham, telling him: “Know well that your offspring shall be strangers in a land not theirs, and they shall be enslaved and oppressed four hundred years” (Gen. 15:13). Those four hundred years are calculated from the birth of Isaac, and the actual time that the Jews lived in Egypt was in fact no more than 210 years.
At the same time, and strictly speaking, it would seem that the Jews really should have remained in Egypt the full 430 years. But God reduced the period of Egyptian slavery, because the Jews found their plight so unbearable that they might have perished outright had God not brought the redemption when He did. The Almighty therefore brought the Jews out of Egypt after only 210 years, and He counted the 430 years of slavery of the original decree as having begun from the moment of the Covenant between the Parts (such that the 400 years indicated there begin with the birth of Isaac).
The idea that the Jews spent less time in Egypt than originally planned also explains why God led the Jews to the Land of Israel not directly, but in a roundabout path via Mount Sinai, where the giving of the Torah took place. See §14.1 below for details.
(41) At the end of the four hundred and thirtieth year, to the very day, all the ranks of the Lord departed from the land of Egypt: The Midrash comments on this verse: “The Almighty did not delay the redemption for even a moment. As soon as 430 years had passed from the time that God had concluded the covenant with Abraham, He brought the Jews out of Egypt on the exact day according to that calculation, which fell on the fifteenth day of the month of Nisan.”
(42) That was for the Lord a night of vigil: Leil shimurim, literally, “the night of watchfulness.” It is the night of God’s special vigilance and protection, because on this night the Almighty Himself protected the Jews, not allowing death to enter their homes.
That same night is the Lord’s: It is “the Lord’s night” because He prepared it in advance. That is, from the very beginning God had scheduled the Exodus to take place on this exact day on the calendar. According to the Midrash, and as we have noted, the angels who visited Abraham (Gen. 19:1 ff.) came to him on the fifteenth of Nisan, to give him the news of Isaac’s birth that would happen exactly one year later. Thus, the four hundred years of Egyptian slavery that culminated in the Exodus were calculated not only from the year of Isaac’s birth, but from the day of his birth.
One of vigil for all the children of Israel throughout the ages: Recalling that the Almighty vigilantly guarded the Jews that night, the Jewish nation must in future vigilantly “keep this night,” and celebrate it without fail each and every year.
Chapter 13. The Accession of the Proselytes. Remembering the Exodus
13.1. The Laws of Passover, and the Accession of the Proselytes (12:43-51)
(43) The Lord said to Moses and Aaron: This is the law of the passover offering: No foreigner shall eat of it.
(44) But any slave a man has bought may eat of it once he has been circumcised.
(45) No bound or hired laborer shall eat of it.
(46) It shall be eaten in one house: you shall not take any of the flesh outside the house; nor shall you break a bone of it.
(47) The whole community of Israel shall offer it.
(48) If a stranger who dwells with you would offer the passover to the Lord, all his males must be circumcised; then he shall be admitted to offer it; he shall then be as a citizen of the country. But no uncircumcised person may eat of it.
(49) There shall be one law for the citizen and for the stranger who dwells among you.
(50) And all the Israelites did so; as the Lord had commanded Moses and Aaron, so they did.
(51) That very day the Lord freed the Israelites from the land of Egypt, troop by troop.
(43) The Lord said to Moses and Aaron: The following laws, which include the accession of proselytes, were given to Moses and Aaron together, because proselytes combine two closely related aspects: attaching oneself to the Torah, and attaching oneself to the Jewish people, as represented by Moses and Aaron, respectively.
This is the law of the passover offering: No foreigner shall eat of it: The laws that govern how one joins the Jewish nation begin with highlighting the boundary between the Jewish people and all other nations. In order for the Jews to bring Divine light to all of mankind, they must first separate themselves from it.
(44) But any slave a man has bought may eat of it once he has been circumcised: Slaves in the Middle East were treated as members of the family. But the Torah emphasizes here that they attain that status only after fully accepting Jewish religious norms, as demonstrated by becoming circumcised.
(45) No bound or hired laborer shall eat of it: These are non-Jews who settle in Israel, or hired laborers, i.e., people having only an economic association with Judaism and Jewry. These are not considered family members.
(46) It shall be eaten in one house: you shall not take any of the flesh outside the house; nor shall you break a bone of it: As we noted earlier, all the Passover commandments are associated with the themes of unity, integrity, and “concentration.” Here, too, these principles are repeated in connection with the manner in which proselytes are accepted. Proselytes, rather than being allowed to become and remain isolated in distinct subethnicities, must along with their descendants be fully integrated in every respect into the one, unified Jewish nation.
(47) The whole community of Israel shall offer it: The commandment of participating in the the Passover sacrifice is obligatory for all Jews.
(48) If a stranger who dwells with you would offer the passover to the Lord, all his males must be circumcised; then he shall be admitted to offer it: Thus, we see two levels of “stranger”: The uncircumcised stranger, who is not a Jew and is therefore forbidden to partake of the Passover sacrifice, and the circumcised stranger, who thereby becomes a full-fledged member of the Jewish nation, and participates in in the Passover sacrifice like any other Jew.
All his males must be circumcised; then he shall be admitted to offer it; he shall then be as a citizen of the country: The laws that prescribe how proselytes should be incorporated into the Jewish nation are given in the context of two Jewish commandments of paramount importance: circumcision, and the Passover sacrifice. These correspond, respectively, to the two essential covenants in Judaism – the Abrahamic covenant and the Sinai covenant.
Becoming circumcised means joining the Abrahamic covenant. A person who does not fully subscribe to the ideals for which the Jewish people exist cannot become a part of the Jewish people.
Passover means joining in the birth of the Jewish people and in the Sinai covenant. No one can join the Jewish people who does not share in the Sinai Covenant and the common national memory of the Exodus.
The commandments of circumcision and the Passover sacrifice are very tightly connected, in that no uncircumcised man can eat of the Passover sacrifice. This demonstrates the inextricable link between the Abrahamic covenant and the Sinai covenant.
(During the two-century Jewish exile in Egypt, only a portion of the people continued to observe the tradition of circumcision. Those who had not done so where circumcised shortly before the Exodus. Circumcision is therefore not explicitly mentioned here with respect to the Jews, but only in connection with the accession of proselytes [65]).
(49) There shall be one law for the citizen and for the stranger: This again emphasizes that proselytes are completely absorbed into the Jewish people, and become full-fledged members of the nation in every respect.
(50) And all the Israelites did so; as the Lord had commanded Moses and Aaron, so they did: The Children of Israel circumcised the “mixed multitude,” thus completing the process of their full inclusion in the Jewish fold.
(51) That very day the Lord freed the Israelites from the land of Egypt, troop by troop: This is the end result of all the preceding events. The “mixed multitude” and the Children of Israel now constitute a single, unified army.
13.2. Consecration of the Firstborns (13:1-2)
(1) The Lord spoke further to Moses, saying,
(2) “Consecrate to Me every first-born; man and beast, the first issue of every womb among the Israelites is Mine.”
(1) The Lord spoke further to Moses, saying: At the conclusion of the story of the Exodus from Egypt, a commandment is given to remember it.
(2) Consecrate to Me every first-born: The commandment to consecrate the firstborns is intended to serve as a reminder that the Jewish firstborns were spared during the tenth plague. It also emphasizes the idea of Israel’s spiritual primacy: “Thus says the Lord: Israel is My first-born son” (4:22).
13.3. Moses’ Concluding Passover Address (13:3-16)
(3) And Moses said to the people: Remember this day, on which you went free from Egypt, the house of bondage, how the Lord freed you from it with a mighty hand: no leavened bread shall be eaten.
(4) You go free on this day, in the month of Abib.
(5) So, when the Lord has brought you into the land of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites, which He swore to your fathers to give you, a land flowing with milk and honey, you shall observe in this month the following practice:
(6) Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread, and on the seventh day there shall be a festival of the Lord.
(7) Throughout the seven days unleavened bread shall be eaten; no leavened bread shall be found with you, and no leaven shall be found in all your territory.
(8) And you shall explain to your son on that day, ‘It is because of what the Lord did for me when I went free from Egypt.’
(9) And this shall serve you as a sign on your hand and as a reminder on your forehead — in order that the Teaching of the Lord may be in your mouth — that with a mighty hand the Lord freed you from Egypt.
(10) You shall keep this institution at its set time from year to year.
(11) And when the Lord has brought you into the land of the Canaanites, as He swore to you and to your fathers, and has given it to you,
(12) you shall set apart for the Lord every first issue of the womb: every male firstling that your cattle drop shall be the Lord‘s.
(13) But every firstling ass you shall redeem with a sheep; if you do not redeem it, you must break its neck. And you must redeem every first-born male among your children.
(14) And when, in time to come, your son asks you, saying, ‘What does this mean?’ you shall say to him, ‘It was with a mighty hand that the Lord brought us out from Egypt, the house of bondage.
(15) When Pharaoh stubbornly refused to let us go, the Lord slew every first-born in the land of Egypt, the first-born of both man and beast. Therefore I sacrifice to the Lord every first male issue of the womb, but redeem every first-born among my sons.’
(16) “And so it shall be as a sign upon your hand and as a symbol on your forehead that with a mighty hand the Lord freed us from Egypt.”
(3) And Moses said to the people, “Remember this day, on which you went free from Egypt, the house of bondage, how the Lord freed you from it with a mighty hand: no leavened bread shall be eaten: While giving the people the commandment to consecrate every firstborn, Moses also unites it in a single complex with the commandments to eat matzah and to retell the story of the Exodus, and with the yearning for the Land of Israel. All this is essential for the full integration of proselytes into the Jewish people, which must be based on their total acceptance of Judaism’s fundamental ideals and values.
How the Lord freed you from it with a mighty hand: no leavened bread shall be eaten: Matzah now becomes only a memory of the Exodus, a reminder that “they baked unleavened cakes of the dough that they had taken out of Egypt, for it was not leavened” (12:39).
(4) You go free on this day, in the month of Abib: Hebrew Aviv means “spring.” The spring of nature always occurs in synchrony with the Jewish “spring” – a new start for all of humanity. In later times the month of Aviv came to be called “Nisan,” which is how we know it today.
(5) So, when the Lord has brought you into the land of the Canaanites … you shall observe in this month the following practice: After the proselytes have joined the Jewish nation, it is important to emphasize once again the connection of Passover to the Exodus, and also to the Land of Israel, because the purpose of leaving Egypt was to come to Eretz Yisrael, “the Land of Israel.” This point was not obvious to the proselytes. They were attracted to the personality of Moses and his new religious ideals, but initially felt no connection to the Land of Israel.
(7) Throughout the seven days unleavened bread shall be eaten; no leavened bread shall be found with you, and no leaven shall be found in all your territory: This symbolizes that the Jews are being cleansed from the enslavement of Egyptian civilization. This complete ban on leaven (not only eating it, but even owning it) is added to the Passover laws after the accession of the Egyptian proselytes, for whom the cleansing from Egyptian attitudes must be yet deeper and more complete.
(8) And you shall explain to your son on that day: Explain it to your son, whether he asks or not. But if he asks (see below, v. 14), then explain it to him in even greater detail.
It is because of what the Lord did for me when I went free from Egypt: The purpose of the Exodus was not merely to give the Jews their freedom, but to connect them directly with the Almighty.
(9) “And this shall serve you as a sign on your hand and as a reminder on your forehead — in order that the Teaching of the Lord may be in your mouth — that with a mighty hand the Lord freed you from Egypt: All your affairs, as well as your worldview, must derive from your perspective on the Exodus and your understanding of God’s teachings.
Jewish Tradition sees this verse as referring to the commandment to don tefillin (phylacteries, leather boxes containing excerpts from the Torah). The tefillin, which are worn on the forehead, must be perfectly square. Their straight lines symbolize Divine Providence, and in this regard they are like Moses’ staff (the Kabbalah calls these straight lines “rays”). The tefillin that are worn on the forehead, which are symbolic of Divine Providence, contrast with the image of the snake, the uraeus, which the Egyptian pharaohs wore on their foreheads [66]. In the terminology of the Kabbalah, circularity, as seen in a snake’s coils, is symbolic of the cycle of nature, which, unlike Divine Providence, has no inherent purpose or direction.
It should be noted that the Torah presents the tefillin here not only as a strictly religious attribute, but as a national “sign” that symbolizes and commemorates the Jewish victory over Egypt.
(11) And when the Lord has brought you into the land of the Canaanites, as He swore to you and to your fathers, and has given it to you: Full realization of the Torah and its commandments is possible only in the Land of Israel.
(12-13) You shall set apart for the Lord every first issue of the womb: every male firstling that your cattle drop … But every firstling ass you shall redeem with a sheep … You must redeem every first-born male: The wording of the commandment as given by God to Moses (v. 2) was more terse: “Consecrate to Me every first-born; man and beast.” But when Moses relays the same commandment to the Jews, he elaborates upon it. The firstborns of cattle are sacrificed upon the altar, the firstborns of unclean animals and human firstborns must be redeemed. The commandment to consecrate the firstborns is presented as a reminder of the Exodus, and emphasizes the importance of this commandment for driving one’s actions and shaping one’s worldview.
The counterpoint here of God's original instructions versus Moses’ retelling of them very closely parallels the relationship of the Written Torah to the Oral Torah. The former presents only the most basic and essential principles of Jewish life, while the latter very greatly expands upon those principles, explaining how they are to be realized in actual practice.
(14) And when, in time to come, your son asks you, saying, ‘What does this mean?’: For the son who asks no questions, a shorter statement of the meaning of the Exodus suffices, as given above (v. 8). But if the son asks, the father’s answer must be more detailed, in order to give the child a better understanding of history and its contemporary relevance.
You shall say to him, ‘It was with a mighty hand that the Lord brought us out from Egypt, the house of bondage’: This is the knowledge that the father is obliged to pass on to his more contemplative son: All of history is driven by the power of the Almighty’s hand.
(15) When Pharaoh stubbornly refused to let us go, the Lord slew every first-born in the land of Egypt: For the present and the future, this means that with Divine assistance, all obstacles and hindrances will be overcome.
Therefore I sacrifice to the Lord every first male issue of the womb, but redeem every first-born among my sons: A Jew must explain to his son the meaning of the commandments. In this case, the consecration and redemption of every firstborn expresses gratitude to the Almighty.
(16) And so it shall be as a sign upon your hand and as a symbol on your forehead that with a mighty hand the Lord freed us from Egypt: In this verse the father continues to address his son: “This is how you are to see the world” (but also: “Understand the commandment of the tefillin as a daily remembrance of the Exodus”).
Chapter 14. Crossing the Sea of Reeds
14.1. The Exodus, as Seen “from Outside”
The Exodus from Egypt is recounted in two weekly portions: The preceding portion (3), Bo, the “Moses” portion – the Exodus from the “internal” point of view, i.e., as viewed from within the Jewish people. And this weekly portion (4), Beshalach, the “Aaron” portion – a recounting of the Exodus from the “external” point of view, i.e., as seen through the eyes of the world.
The story of the Exodus, portion Bo just concluded, placed the emphasis on the separation of the Jews from the Egyptians: the final plagues, the Passover seder, the Passover sacrifice so reviled by the Egyptians, the new lunar-solar calendar system, and the proselytes who realigned themselves with the Jewish position.
But if we look at the Exodus from the outside – as viewed by the peoples of the world – we get an entirely different impression, in which it seems that the crossing of the Sea of Reeds is the main event.
Those who look from outside care little about the Passover Seder, the Jewish calendar, or the proselytes. But the death of the preeminent Egyptian army at sea is for them a monumental event of international significance that has affected the entire course of world history.
For the nations of the world, what is important is not that a bunch slaves who longed for their freedom finally got it, but that Pharaoh and his entire army, chasing them in hot pursuit, were annihilated, and that the military power of the Egyptian state was utterly destroyed. That is how the Exodus is presented in this Beshalach portion.
When God intervened in the course of history and destroyed Israel’s enemies, this left an indelible impression on the peoples of the world. The Song of the Sea emphasizes precisely this aspect of the Exodus: “Now are the clans of Edom dismayed; The tribes of Moab — trembling grips them; All the dwellers in Canaan are aghast. Terror and dread descend upon them; Through the might of Your arm they are still as stone — Till Your people cross over, O Lord, Till Your people cross whom You have ransomed.” (15:14-16)
The book of Joshua, describing events that occurred forty years after the Exodus, records that the deep impression that the Exodus made on the surrounding nations helped the Jewish people conquer Canaan. “[Rahab] said to the men, “I know that the Lord has given the country to you, because dread of you has fallen upon us, and all the inhabitants of the land are quaking before you. For we have heard how the Lord dried up the waters of the Sea of Reeds for you when you left Egypt” (Josh. 2:8-10). This was the reason that during the conquest of Canaan by the grandchildren of the Jews who had left Egypt, the Canaanite kings received no assistance from Egypt in resisting the Jewish conquest (notwithstanding that Canaan was a province of Egypt, and the kings of ancient Canaan were vassals of Egypt). Moreover, for more than four hundred years thereafter Egypt would not intervene in anything that was happening in the Holy Land, allowing Jewish history to take its course unimpeded.
And yet, the crossing of the Sea of Reeds had no such effect on the Jewish people themselves. Yes, they saw in it a remarkable revelation, but almost immediately after that, at the very first sign of difficulties, they began to grumble and complain. At the crossing of the Sea of Reeds the Jews experienced a powerful emotional upset, but it was not visceral enough to be long-lasting. The real revelation to the Jews is the giving of the Torah at Sinai (which occurs in weekly portion Yitro immediately following this one).
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The name of the Beshalach portion (“when he let the people go”) reveals its primary theme — Israel’s relationship with Egypt from the moment the Jews are liberated and begin to experience freedom, and the behavior of the Jews themselves under those conditions of freedom.
The crossing of the sea is the completion of the Exodus, in the sense that it represents the complete and final separation of the Jews from the Egyptians. But at the same time, it was a test for the Jewish people themselves, because it is precisely at the onset of that freedom that internal problems begin to appear, and murmurs of discontent arise. Such problems are inevitable, because “the Exodus” is the normal but lengthy process of becoming a free people, which cannot possibly happen overnight.
In the relatively short journey from Egypt to Mount Sinai, several moments of crisis arise: the undrinkable bitter water, the incident of the manna from heaven, the story of drawing water from the rock, and the war with Amalek. The Jews had to encounter all these difficulties, so that by overcoming them, they could rise to that higher level of spiritual development that they needed in order to receive the Torah at Sinai.
14.2. The Exodus Takes an Alternate Route (13:17-18)
(17) Now when Pharaoh let the people go, God did not lead them by way of the land of the Philistines, although it was nearer; for God said, “The people may have a change of heart when they see war, and return to Egypt.”
(18) So God led the people roundabout, by way of the wilderness at the Sea of Reeds …
(17) By way of the land of the Philistines: That is, along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
Although it was nearer; for God said, “The people may have a change of heart when they see war, and return to Egypt”: The Israelites, had they taken the shorter road, would have arrived in Canaan much sooner. But as they were still burdened by their own slave mentality, they were not ready for war, and upon finding themselves in such a war with the residents of Canaan they might have quickly become dispirited and wanted to return to Egypt, where they had lived under oppression, but nevertheless protected by their masters.
Now when Pharaoh let the people go, God did not lead them: The word NaCHaM, “lead them,” echoes the word yiNaCHeM, “have a change of heart,” that appears later in this verse. In terms of their respective grammatical roots these words are different. In the former case, the verbal root is N-W-CH, the final M being only a suffix (indicating the third-person plural direct object, “them”). But in the latter case, the root, N-CH-M, includes the final M itself.
Nonetheless, the commonality of the two words is sufficiently striking that we cannot deem their appearance here in such close proximity a mere coincidence. Rather, the Torah is deliberately drawing a connection that is to be understood as imparting an additional meaning to this verse. That is, the word NaCHaM, “lead them,” acquires a shade of the meaning also of N-CH-M, the root of yiNaCHeM, “have a change of heart.”
We have already analyzed in considerable detail the Hebrew root N-CH-M and its derivatives in our coverage of the story of the Flood, in which this concept plays a central role (see Bible Dynamics on Genesis. Ch. 7). As noted there, N-CH-M means to console oneself, to reconcile with reality and with the fact that reality is not as ideal as we would like, to revise one’s prior plans and expectations.
In this case, with respect to God’s actions after the Exodus, we understand this to mean that by leading the Jews along a different path because of their fear of war, God too “revised His previous plan.”
For God said, “The people may have a change of heart when they see war, and return to Egypt”: Thus, the close associative connection between ve-lo nacham Elohim, “God did not lead them,” and pen yinachem ha’am, “the people may have a change of heart,” emphasizes that God's actions are a direct and immediate consequence of the state of the Jewish people.
(18) So God led the people roundabout, by way of the wilderness at the Sea of Reeds: He led them not directly, but in a roundabout way – not directly to Canaan, but through the wilderness, where the Torah would be given.
Thus, the original plan was to lead the Jews directly to the Land of Israel, but that plan had to be revised, because the Jews were not yet ready to wage war, and so God led the Jews through the wilderness instead. However, the Jews received the Torah in the Sinai wilderness (19:1), and Tradition sees special meaning in that the Torah was given and received in the wilderness specifically. Thus, the journey through the wilderness, and the giving of the Torah there “in the form of legislation” was a decision made post facto, and only by force of circumstance.
As explained earlier, the original plan was for the Jews to remain enslaved in Egypt for 430 years, but because the people proved incapable of enduring such an ordeal, the interval was reduced by more than half, to 210 years. For that same reason yetziat mizrayim (“the Exodus from Egypt” – but literally, “the exodus of Egypt,” meaning: Egypt’s own exodus from spiritual slavery to freedom, and to a dialogue with God) did not take place on the grand scale on which it had been originally conceived. Only a relatively small group of Egyptians joined forces with the Jews and left Egypt with them, while the rest remained behind, and were not liberated from the “house of bondage.”
The unpreparedness of the Jews to do battle with the Philistines can be attributed to this “incompleteness of the Exodus” – the relatively limited forces that left Egypt. Likewise, the change in God's plans as indicated in these verses can be seen as brought about by those same factors.
The Divine plan as originally conceived was to bring the Jews out of Egypt “with all of Egypt,” i.e., with a sizeable and developmentally advanced segment of its population, and, moreover, to bring the Jews (and those who had joined with them) immediately to the Land of Israel, and not to Mount Sinai.
But because the Jews would never have survived the full 430 years of slavery as planned, the Exodus occurred “prematurely.” The result was that they left Egypt in relatively small numbers, because they left the majority of the Egyptians behind. In view of this, they were not ready for war, and the plan had to be changed to lead them on a different, longer road. This is what we mean when we say that the giving of the Torah at Mount Sinai occurred by force of circumstance, and was not an event actually planned as such.
That the Divine teachings had to be formulated as law (even if it was Divine law) was an outcome that fell well short of the ideal. The ideal was that the entire people would experience the Torah as something entirely natural and self-evident, just as the Patriarchs experienced it.
Had the Jews received the massive, full support of the entire Egyptian nation (which means that even before leaving Egypt they would have ceased to be slaves there, because all of Egypt would have already changed), then attaining the ideal just described would have been possible. But when slaves are liberated directly from slavery, there is no getting away from the need to impose on them strict (even harsh) laws [67]. The ideal of a “self-evident Torah” was neither annulled nor abolished; it was only postponed until the Messianic era. Meanwhile, there was no choice but for the Law to be given to the people, and for the people to receive the Law.
By all appearances, God’s change of plan occurred not at the moment of the Exodus, but eighty years earlier, when He sent Moses to be raised in Pharaoh’s place, in order to acquire and assimilate the principles of Egyptian political structure and government. By virtue of that upbringing, Moses understands that the life of the people must be regulated by legislation, which means that Moses’ orientation closely corresponds to the ethos of the Sinai covenant (as we have previously discussed in considerable detail).
This by no means implies that the larger world has no need for the Torah, or that its laws were nothing more than the result of a circumstantial afterthought. The principles of the Torah are of course primordial in their origins; they are a sine qua non for the existence of the world, even to the extent that the Torah actually predates the existence of the world (as the Midrash puts it, “God looked into the Torah and created the universe”).
Be that as it may, the Torah was framed at the Exodus into an ordered code of laws precisely because the exodus from Egypt took place too early. The Jewish nation at that time was not capable (as, indeed, even today it is not capable) of comprehending “intuitively Divine teachings that are based on ideals,” in the manner that the Patriarchs understood those teachings.
14.3. The Problem of the Torah as Law
This concept, which sees the giving of the Torah as a compulsory measure, at first seems rather strange to Judaism. As a rule, in popular Jewish religious literature, the laws of the Torah are extolled as the ideal. But in fact, the anomic line of thought, which disparages the importance of the law, is not at all alien to Judaism, but, on the contrary, is deeply rooted in it. This approach emphasizes that the Torah was forced upon the Jews [68] at Sinai, and argues that in Messianic times the restrictive laws will be abolished, such that people will not need to teach each other. Every person will independently understand the Torah, by virtue of the Divine spark that he harbors within himself [69].
We wish to emphasize that the issue here is not that the Torah will be abolished in Messianic times, but that the commandments will cease to be “law” – their status will change. In Messianic times, the commandments of the Torah based on an ordered set of rules will become an internal guide to action. The Patriarchs of the Torah proceeded from this inner sensation – they were able to realize the commandments without being guided by formal laws. The commandments were natural values for the Patriarchs, which they understood from within – a much higher level of spiritual development than a system in which the commandments serve as legislative norms.
However, so long as the Jewish people, and all of humanity, have not yet risen to this level, the laws cannot be repealed. Judaism’s Messianic goal is for all of society to be built on ideals and on love, not on laws and coercion. But any attempt to build such a society prematurely, to “repeal the law” before humanity is truly ready for such a transformation [70], is a form of false Messianism.
Moreover, because the Jewish people accepted the laws of the Torah under duress, there are people in every generation who yearn to throw off the yoke of the law. In their souls they sense this law as a form of violence that has been inflicted on them, rather than an obligation that they accepted of their own free will. But they fail to realize that the world has not yet reached that level of spiritual development where the law can simply be replaced by values and ideals. The actions of these people are therefore destructive, even if we allow that their motives are not entirely without merit. But at the same time, while we understand that it would be utterly premature to repeal the law at this time, it is essential that we strive toward that goal, in order to ensure that in the future, values and ideals that will be internally motivated, but universally acknowledged, will replace the law as the foundation of human society.
We must therefore not idealize the Divine law. For their proper development, the Jewish people need not only the Sages who preserve the Law, but the defectors too, who from time to time lead their own rebellion against it. Although their intent is to defy and destroy, such destruction counters the blind worship of the law. And that too is important.
14.4. The Departure from Egypt (13:18-22)
(18) So God led the people roundabout, by way of the wilderness at the Sea of Reeds. Now the Israelites went up armed out of the land of Egypt.
(19) And Moses took with him the bones of Joseph, who had exacted an oath from the children of Israel, saying, “God will be sure to take notice of you: then you shall carry up my bones from here with you.”
(20) They set out from Succoth, and encamped at Etham, at the edge of the wilderness.
(21) The Lord went before them in a pillar of cloud by day, to guide them along the way, and in a pillar of fire by night, to give them light, that they might travel day and night.
(22) The pillar of cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night did not depart from before the people.
(18) So God led the people roundabout, by way of the wilderness at the Sea of Reeds: The term yam suf, “Sea of Reeds,” in antiquity meant the entire region of the Red Sea (as it is known today), including the Gulf of Eilat [71] and the vicinity of the Isthmus of Suez and its lakes up to the Mediterranean sea [72]. Opinions differ as to where in the region of that isthmus the crossing of the Sea of Reeds actually took place, whether it was near our Red Sea, or near the Mediterranean Sea, or through a lake that lay somewhere between those two.
Now the Israelites went up armed out of the land of Egypt: Although the word “chamushim” is translated here as “armed,” it more generally denotes being prepared with whatever is needed (and not only in the military sense). The Jews’ long stay in Egypt was much more than valuable time lost to slavery. Thanks to Egypt, the Jews gained the potential and the opportunity for further internal growth.
Grammatically, the word chamushim, “armed,” is very close to chamesh, “five.” The Midrash therefore offers a different interpretation here, understanding chamushim, as “reduced to one fifth"; that is, only one fifth of the Jews left Egypt. The remainder had no interest in the Exodus, nor had they any intent to leave Egypt, and they therefore died during the plague of darkness (the ninth plague). The meaning of this midrash (which, of course, should not be taken literally) is that the Exodus did not realize its full potential, for it was only “one fifth of a true Exodus,” i.e., only a small part of the ideal, full “Exodus of Egypt,” as discussed previously.
(19) And Moses took with him the bones of Joseph, who had exacted an oath from the children of Israel, saying, “God will be sure to take notice of you: then you shall carry up my bones from here with you”: The concluding verses of Genesis (50:25) related that Joseph, toward the end of his life, repented of his deep attachment to Egypt, and enjoined the Jews under oath to take his bones with them at the Exodus. Here Moses fulfills that solemn obligation.
The Midrash finds a connection between Joseph's bones and the creation of the Golden calf. We will touch upon this later in weekly portion Ki Tissa.
(20) They set out from Succoth, and encamped at Etham, at the edge of the wilderness: The actual wilderness began immediately beyond the Egyptian border.
(21) The Lord went before them in a pillar of cloud by day, to guide them along the way, and in a pillar of fire by night, to give them light, that they might travel day and night: Constant movement without rest, day and night, reflects the people’s accelerated transformation.
(22) The pillar of cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night did not depart from before the people: The Jews were not left to their own devices. God walked beside them, “holding their hand,” as it were, and would not allow Himself to leave them.
14.5. Baiting the Trap for Pharaoh (14:1-4)
(1) The Lord said to Moses:
(2) Tell the Israelites to turn back and encamp before Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, before Baal-zephon; you shall encamp facing it, by the sea.
(3) Pharaoh will say of the Israelites, “They are astray in the land; the wilderness has closed in on them.”
(4) Then I will stiffen Pharaoh’s heart and he will pursue them, that I may gain glory through Pharaoh and all his host; and the Egyptians shall know that I am the Lord. And they did so.
(2) Tell the Israelites to turn back: Had they just gone straight, the Israelites could have left Egypt and reached their destination entirely by land without ever crossing the sea. But because the Exodus would not have been complete without Pharaoh’s death, the Jews had to “turn back” – to return and collect Pharaoh, as it were, in order to see him drowned.
And encamp before Pi-ha-hiroth: Literally, “the mouth of freedom.” That is, a location from which they could get access to a “slavery-free zone.”
Before Baal-zephon; you shall encamp facing it, by the sea: Baal-tzephon, means “Lord of the North.” A deity of the Canaanites, it was so-named because their territory was located to the north of Egypt. The Egyptians erected this deity on the Egyptian border, along the road leading to Canaan.
The Jews now find themselves, both geographically and psychologically, on the boundary between Egypt and the road leading to Canaan. It is here that they must finally define the relationship that they will have with Pharaoh and Egypt henceforth.
(3) Pharaoh will say of the Israelites, “They are astray in the land; the wilderness has closed in on them”: Pharaoh will reason that the Jews are stranded near the sea, because “the wilderness has closed in on them” (that is, they have lost their way), and because “they are astray in the land” – they have no idea why they left Egypt and where they are headed. This gives Pharaoh and the Egyptians hope that the Jews will agree to return to Egypt, to be once again under Egyptian control.
(4) Then I will stiffen Pharaoh’s heart and he will pursue them, that I may gain glory through Pharaoh and all his host: The Almighty now displays His true greatness. This is necessary for educating mankind, and first and foremost in this instance – to educate the Egyptians.
And the Egyptians shall know that I am the Lord: We have already noted two main reasons that God deemed it necessary for the Egyptians to “know that I am the Lord.”
First, it was necessary not only to remove the Jews from Egypt, but “to remove Egypt from Jews” – to free the Jews from their worship of Egypt, and to destroy the Egyptian value system in the eyes of the Egyptians themselves, after which, as the natural consequence, it would be destroyed in the eyes of the Jews as well.
Second, it was necessary to intimidate the Egyptians to such an extent that they would not interfere with Israel’s conquest of Canaan, and for several hundred years into the future would make no effort to intervene in what would be happening there. This afforded the Jewish people conditions conducive to gradually building their own state, and for the Torah to become the Tanakh, a necessary step for the subsequent spiritual development of all of humanity.
14.6. Pharaoh Pursues the Israelites (14:5-9)
(5) When the king of Egypt was told that the people had fled, Pharaoh and his courtiers had a change of heart about the people and said, “What is this we have done, releasing Israel from our service?”
(6) He ordered his chariot and took his men with him;
(7) he took six hundred of his picked chariots, and the rest of the chariots of Egypt, with officers in all of them.
(8) The Lord stiffened the heart of Pharaoh king of Egypt, and he gave chase to the Israelites. As the Israelites were departing defiantly, boldly,
(9) the Egyptians gave chase to them, and all the chariot horses of Pharaoh, his horsemen, and his warriors overtook them encamped by the sea, near Pi-hahiroth, before Baal-zephon.
(5) When the king of Egypt was told that the people had fled: Only a few days earlier the Egyptians had driven the Jews out of Egypt by force. But now they see the situation as “the people had fled.”
Pharaoh and his courtiers had a change of heart about the people and said, “What is this we have done, releasing Israel from our service?”: The Egyptians have already forgotten the plagues, including the death of their firstborns. All they can think about now is the economic opportunities they have forfeited.
(6) He ordered his chariot and took his men with him: Literally, “He harnessed his chariot and took his people with him.” The Midrash understands these words literally. Pharaoh harnesses his own chariot and in this manner he “takes his people with him” – he raises the Egyptians’ morale. Although the death of the firstborns was a very severe blow to the Egyptians, Pharaoh, by demonstrating his own preparedness for war, was able to mobilize them. Once again, we see that Pharaoh is a truly outstanding leader.
(7) He took six hundred of his picked chariots, and the rest of the chariots of Egypt: This shows that Egypt still has plenty of horses – that not all of them died in the plagues (see 9:6).
with officers in all of them: The Torah here uses the rather obscure word shalish, which grammatically is very close to shalosh, “three.” Perhaps there were three men on each chariot, or each chariot was harnessed to a troika of three horses. Or the word might simply mean “infantry.”
(8) The Lord stiffened the heart of Pharaoh king of Egypt, and he gave chase to the Israelites: The previous plagues might have taught Pharaoh not to mess with the Jews. But now God stiffened Pharaoh’s heart once again, and Pharaoh could not rein himself in.
As the Israelites were departing defiantly, boldly: Overtly, hiding nothing, thus luring Pharaoh on.
(9) The Egyptians gave chase to them, and all the chariot horses of Pharaoh, his horsemen, and his warriors overtook them encamped by the sea, near Pi-hahiroth, before Baal-zephon: The showdown with Pharaoh occurs between Pi-hahiroth and Baal-zephon, on the boundary between the liberation from Egypt and the road leading to the Land of Canaan.
14.7. The Israelites are Initially Confounded, but Ultimately Prevail (14:10-18)
(10) As Pharaoh drew near, the Israelites caught sight of the Egyptians advancing upon them. Greatly frightened, the Israelites cried out to the Lord.
(11) And they said to Moses, “Was it for want of graves in Egypt that you brought us to die in the wilderness? What have you done to us, taking us out of Egypt?
(12) Is this not the very thing we told you in Egypt, saying, ‘Let us be, and we will serve the Egyptians, for it is better for us to serve the Egyptians than to die in the wilderness’?”
(13) But Moses said to the people, “Have no fear! Stand by, and witness the deliverance which the Lord will work for you today; for the Egyptians whom you see today you will never see again.
(14) The Lord will battle for you; you hold your peace!”
(15) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Why do you cry out to Me? Tell the Israelites to go forward.
(16) And you lift up your rod and hold out your arm over the sea and split it, so that the Israelites may march into the sea on dry ground.
(17) And I will stiffen the hearts of the Egyptians so that they go in after them; and I will gain glory through Pharaoh and all his warriors, his chariots and his horsemen.
(18) Let the Egyptians know that I am Lord, when I gain glory through Pharaoh, his chariots, and his horsemen.”
(10) As Pharaoh drew near, the Israelites caught sight: Literally, “the Israelites lifted their eyes.” As a general rule, this expression whenever used in Tanakh has a connotation of looking not afar but upward – toward Heaven. In other words, as the Jews turned their thoughts to the Almighty, they experienced a pronounced psychological and spiritual discomfort.
Caught sight of the Egyptians advancing upon them: Literally, “And, behold, Egypt is advancing upon them.” In other words, not just the Egyptians, but Egypt itself wants to capture them and return them to her. Until only very recently the Jews had been slaves to Egypt, but they were suddenly freed, and now, besides being terrified by the very real danger they face, they are also stricken with pangs of guilt for having abandoned their “lawful masters.” Even now the Jews believe that in the name of justice they should still be slaves in Egypt.
(10-11) Greatly frightened, the Israelites cried out to the Lord. And they said to Moses, “Was it for want of graves in Egypt that you brought us to die in the wilderness? What begins as a cry unto the Lord very soon becomes a serious grievance leveled at Moses.
(12) Is this not the very thing we told you in Egypt, saying, ‘Let us be, and we will serve the Egyptians, for it is better for us to serve the Egyptians than to die in the wilderness’? Even all the previous plagues have not yet convinced the people that God will protect them from Pharaoh. This ordeal of impending mortal danger and deliverance from it were also an essential aspect of Israel’s education.
(13-14) But Moses said to the people, “Have no fear! Stand by, and witness the deliverance which the Lord will work for you … The Lord will battle for you; you hold your peace!”: Because Moses is confident that a miraculous salvation is close at hand, he believes that there is no need to take independent action.
(15) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Why do you cry out to Me? Tell the Israelites to go forward”: God now gives Moses a completely different instruction: Rather than standing idly by waiting for salvation, the Jews must advance on their own. This is a key moment of the Exodus. The people become capable of taking independent action, and thereby gain their inner freedom.
The Jews find themselves in an intermediate state. The Exodus has begun, but is not yet complete. Internally the Jews are still enslaved by Egypt due to their passivity. To complete the Exodus, they must demonstrate that they are capable of showing initiative. By surmounting their fears and actively entering the sea, the process of their transition to independence begins.
The difficulties that the Jews confront in the course of the Exodus serve the purpose of re-educating them, and allowing them to grow spiritually in the process of overcoming those challenges. God puts the Jews in a very tight spot to make them understand that problems do not solve themselves, and that one must learn to act.
(16) And you lift up your rod and hold out your arm over the sea and split it, so that the Israelites may march into the sea on dry ground: Because God wants the Jews to trust Moses, the sea now parts as if under his authority.
(17) And I will stiffen the hearts of the Egyptians so that they go in after them; and I will gain glory through Pharaoh and all his warriors, his chariots and his horsemen: God’s greatness does not consist in defeating the Egyptians, but in establishing justice. The Egyptians, who drowned Jewish children in the Nile, will themselves now be drowned in the sea.
(18) Let the Egyptians know that I am Lord, when I gain glory through Pharaoh, his chariots, and his horsemen: As with all the plagues, the goal here is to force the Egyptians to see and recognize the Almighty. The Jews are still so deeply enslaved psychologically that they can perceive the Almighty only through Egypt’s recognition of Him, i.e., through Egypt’s final destruction.
14.8. Crossing the Sea of Reeds (14:19-22)
(19) The angel of God, who had been going ahead of the Israelite army, now moved and followed behind them; and the pillar of cloud shifted from in front of them and took up a place behind them,
(20) and it came between the army of the Egyptians and the army of Israel. Thus there was the cloud with the darkness, and it cast a spell upon the night, so that the one could not come near the other all through the night.
(21) Then Moses held out his arm over the sea and the Lord drove back the sea with a strong east wind all that night, and turned the sea into dry ground. The waters were split,
(22) and the Israelites went into the sea on dry ground, the waters forming a wall for them on their right and on their left.
(19) The angel of God, who had been going ahead of the Israelite army, now moved and followed behind them: Normally, at sunset the pillar of cloud would be replaced by the pillar of fire, and at dawn vice versa, but here both pillars came together in order to keep the Egyptians away from Israel.
(20) And it came between the army of the Egyptians and the army of Israel: The two pillars were joined together, and therefore:
Thus there was the cloud with the darkness, and it cast a spell upon the night, so that the one could not come near the other all through the night: On the Egyptian side there was only darkness and gloom, because of the pillar of cloud, but on the Jewish side the pillar of fire lit up the night.
(21) Then Moses held out his arm over the sea and the Lord drove back the sea with a strong east wind all that night, and turned the sea into dry ground. The waters were split: In order for the Jews to trust Moses, God had to make it seem to them that it was Moses who was performing this miracle.
(22) And the Israelites went into the sea on dry ground: The Midrash understands this verse as: “And the Israelites (first) went into the sea (and only then found that they were walking) on dry ground.” That is, first they entered the sea, and only then did it part.
According to the Midrash, at first the sea would not part, and, despite Moses’ exhortations to proceed, the people would not move. But then, Nahshon the son of Amminadab, the prince of the tribe of Judah (see 6:23, and Num. 1:7) entered the water, going deeper and deeper until the water had reached unto his nostrils, and only then the waters parted. The lesson to be learned here is that the miracle of salvation occurred only at the very last moment, and only when the Jews, rather than remaining entirely passive, did everything they could possibly do to show their initiative, and to demonstrate their trust in God that the salvation would come.
The waters forming a wall for them on their right and on their left: In this description there remains a certain duality. God drove back the sea with a strong wind all night (which makes it seem like a natural event), but the waters formed a wall for them on their right and on their left (obviously a miraculous event). This reflects two different perceptions of those same events among the Jewish people. Some of them perceived the events as something entirely normal (the wind blew so hard that the bottom of the sea was exposed), while others saw what was happening as a something truly miraculous (God Himself had split the sea for them).
Such substantially divergent assessments of the very same events in our lives occur frequently, because God runs the world such that we can perceive events as either natural or miraculous, depending on our outlook [73].
14.9. The Egyptians Perish in the Sea of Reeds (14:23-31)
(23) The Egyptians came in pursuit after them into the sea, all of Pharaoh’s horses, chariots, and horsemen.
(24) At the morning watch, the Lord looked down upon the Egyptian army from a pillar of fire and cloud, and threw the Egyptian army into panic.
(25) He locked the wheels of their chariots so that they moved forward with difficulty. And the Egyptians said, “Let us flee from the Israelites, for the Lord is fighting for them against Egypt.”
(26) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Hold out your arm over the sea, that the waters may come back upon the Egyptians and upon their chariots and upon their horsemen.”
(27) Moses held out his arm over the sea, and at daybreak the sea returned to its normal state, and the Egyptians fled at its approach. But the Lord hurled the Egyptians into the sea.
(28) The waters turned back and covered the chariots and the horsemen — Pharaoh’s entire army that followed them into the sea; not one of them remained.
(29) But the Israelites had marched through the sea on dry ground, the waters forming a wall for them on their right and on their left.
(30) Thus the Lord delivered Israel that day from the Egyptians. Israel saw the Egyptians dead on the shore of the sea.
(31) And when Israel saw the wondrous power which the Lord had wielded against the Egyptians, the people feared the Lord; they had faith in the Lord and His servant Moses.
(23) The Egyptians came in pursuit after them into the sea, all of Pharaoh’s horses, chariots, and horsemen: Had the Egyptians found within themselves the strength to halt in their tracks, they would not have perished.
(24) At the morning watch, the Lord looked down upon the Egyptian army: Hebrew, va-yashkef, “He looked down strictly, condemningly.” This is Divine judgment giving the Egyptians their deserts.
From a pillar of fire and cloud, and threw the Egyptian army into panic: The bright light of the pillar of fire and the utter darkness of the pillar of cloud fell upon the Egyptians at the same time. This overwhelmed and confused them, and they became disoriented.
(25) He locked the wheels of their chariots so that they moved forward with difficulty: The chariot wheels were consumed in the heat of the pillar of fire (or the wheels simply fell off their axles), and the chariots dragged along.
And the Egyptians said, “Let us flee from the Israelites, for the Lord is fighting for them against Egypt”: At the very last moment the Egyptians are aware of what is happening, but it is too late for them to be able to change anything.
(26) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Hold out your arm over the sea, that the waters may come back upon the Egyptians and upon their chariots and upon their horsemen”: The return of the waters also had to happen at Moses’ direction, once again to increase and reinforce the trust that the Jews placed in Moses.
(27-29) Moses held out his arm over the sea, and at daybreak the sea returned to its normal state … But the Israelites had marched through the sea on dry ground: While the Egyptians were drowning, the Jews continued to cross the sea. Although the natural order had already been restored where the Egyptians were, and the returning waters buried them under it, the miracle continued for the Jews at their location, and they were able to complete their crossing.
(30) Thus the Lord delivered Israel that day from the Egyptians. Israel saw the Egyptians dead on the shore of the sea: Literally, “Israel saw Egypt dead on the shore of the sea.” Now finally and completely free of their enslavement and subjugation to Egypt, the Jews were now seeing not only the death of the Egyptians, but the death of Egypt itself. For the Jews, Egypt was now totally dead.
(31) And when Israel saw the wondrous power which the Lord had wielded against the Egyptians: The Midrash describes it this way: “A lowly maidservant at the Sea of Reeds saw things that, centuries later, even the great prophet Ezekiel would not see [when the heavens were opened and he saw visions of God and the celestial Chariot]” (see Ezek. ch. 1). The crossing of the sea was a monumental emotional experience, but, as we have noted, all that was only short-lived. Although a burst of emotion can spring the Jews out of Egyptian bondage, it does not yet make them a free people. This will happen only six weeks later, when they receive the Torah on Mount Sinai.
The people feared the Lord; they had faith in the Lord and His servant Moses: Because Moses had “performed” the miracles with his staff, the Jews believed that Moses was indeed the messenger of God.
14.10. The Song of the Sea (15:1-19)
(1) Then Moses and the Israelites sang this song to the Lord. They said: I will sing to the Lord, for He has triumphed gloriously; Horse and driver He has hurled into the sea.
(2) The Lord is my strength and might; He is become my deliverance. This is my God and I will enshrine Him; The God of my father, and I will exalt Him.
(3) The Lord, the Warrior — Lord is His name!
(4) Pharaoh’s chariots and his army He has cast into the sea; And the pick of his officers Are drowned in the Sea of Reeds.
(5) The deeps covered them; They went down into the depths like a stone.
(6) Your right hand, O Lord, glorious in power, Your right hand, O Lord, shatters the foe!
(7) In Your great triumph You break Your opponents; You send forth Your fury, it consumes them like straw.
(8) At the blast of Your nostrils the waters piled up, The floods stood straight like a wall; The deeps froze in the heart of the sea.
(9) The foe said, “I will pursue, I will overtake, I will divide the spoil; My desire shall have its fill of them. I will bare my sword — My hand shall subdue them.”
(10) You made Your wind blow, the sea covered them; They sank like lead in the majestic waters.
(11) Who is like You, O Lord, among the celestials; Who is like You, majestic in holiness, Awesome in splendor, working wonders!
(12) You put out Your right hand, The earth swallowed them.
(13) In Your love You lead the people You redeemed; In Your strength You guide them to Your holy abode.
(14) The peoples hear, they tremble; Agony grips the dwellers in Philistia.
(15) Now are the clans of Edom dismayed; The tribes of Moab — trembling grips them; All the dwellers in Canaan are aghast.
(16) Terror and dread descend upon them; Through the might of Your arm they are still as stone — Till Your people cross over, O Lord, Till Your people cross whom You have ransomed.
(17) You will bring them and plant them in Your own mountain, The place You made to dwell in, O Lord, The sanctuary, O Lord, which Your hands established.
(18) The Lord will reign for ever and ever!
(19) For the horses of Pharaoh, with his chariots and horsemen, went into the sea; and the Lord turned back on them the waters of the sea; but the Israelites marched on dry ground in the midst of the sea.
(1) Then Moses and the Israelites sang this song to the Lord. They said: A “song” is an expression on one’s profound inner experience, of an emotional uplift and feelings of gratitude. Such expression is so important for every individual, and for society as a whole.
A song also expresses one’s understanding of events that have taken place. The Song of the Sea as reported in the Torah serves also this purpose, giving us insight into how the Jewish people at that moment understood what they had experienced.
The deliverance at the Sea of Reeds could be explained either by natural causes (the wind drove the water away) or by miraculous intervention (the waters parted, forming a wall on either side). Having chosen, under Moses’ direction, to sing a song of gratitude to the Almighty, the Jews clearly demonstrate their realization that what had happened was nothing less than a Divine miracle. This is evidence of a very significant advancement for the Jewish people along their path of spiritual development.
(15) Now are the clans of Edom dismayed; The tribes of Moab — trembling grips them; All the dwellers in Canaan are aghast: The annihilation of the Egyptians made a deep impression on all the surrounding peoples. This was very important for the conquest of Canaan and for the future destiny of the Jewish nation.
(17) You will bring them and plant them in Your own mountain, The place You made to dwell in, O Lord, The sanctuary, O Lord, which Your hands established: The entire Promised Land (God’s “own mountain”) is God’s dwelling place, and His sanctuary, in which the Jewish people are to settle. The purpose of the Exodus is to conquer and take possession of the Land, and thus to forge a direct connection with God. The giving of the Torah at Sinai is not mentioned here.
14.11. The Women’s Song (15:20-21)
(20) Then Miriam the prophetess, Aaron’s sister, took a timbrel in her hand, and all the women went out after her in dance with timbrels.
(21) And Miriam chanted for them: Sing to the Lord, for He has triumphed gloriously; Horse and driver He has hurled into the sea.
(20) Then Miriam the prophetess, Aaron’s sister: The Torah emphasizes that Miriam is Aaron’ sister, not Moses’ sister, because Aaron and Miriam had been active as prophets even in Egypt. Also, Miriam’s prophetic gift was on the level of Aaron’s prophecy, but not on Moses’ level.
Took a timbrel in her hand, and all the women went out after her in dance with timbrels: Two points distinguish this description of the women’s song from the general Song of the Sea that preceded it, as sung by Moses and all of Israel: The women sing while dancing (round dances), and they sing with musical instruments (timbrels) in their hands.
All the women went out after her in dance with timbrels: Although the Jews left Egypt “hurriedly” and without an abundance of supplies, the women had taken their musical instruments with them, because Jewish life is impossible without music.
(21) And Miriam chanted for them: Sing to the Lord, for He has triumphed gloriously; Horse and driver He has hurled into the sea: The women’s song repeats the entire men’s song that they have just heard (although the Torah quotes only the women’s repetition of the first verse, the whole song is meant). But the women’s song is different in that it includes dancing and musical accompaniment. A song (and this song in particular) is a metaphor for life itself. Thus, after receiving from the men a significant contribution toward an understanding of the world - the text of the song — the women give it its correct musical and dance form, thus making the song complete.
Chapter 15. From Egypt to Sinai
15.1. The Bitter Waters of Marah (15:22-26)
(22) Then Moses caused Israel to set out from the Sea of Reeds. They went on into the wilderness of Shur; they traveled three days in the wilderness and found no water.
(23) They came to Marah, but they could not drink the water of Marah because it was bitter; that is why it was named Marah.
(24) And the people grumbled against Moses, saying, “What shall we drink?”
(25) So he cried out to the Lord, and the Lord showed him a piece of wood; he threw it into the water and the water became sweet. There He made for them a fixed rule, and there He put them to the test.
(26) He said, “If you will heed the Lord your God diligently, doing what is upright in His sight, giving ear to His commandments and keeping all His laws, then I will not bring upon you any of the diseases that I brought upon the Egyptians, for I the Lord am your healer.”
(22) Then Moses caused Israel to set out from the Sea of Reeds: The Torah here uses a construction so unusual, that it is hardly even possible to capture the meaning in English at all, except with an obvious and awkward circumlocution: “Moses caused Israel to set out.” We should have expected the far more typical, and simple: “Israel set out from the Sea of Reeds.”
The Midrash therefore explains that in this case Moses had to lead Israel away with actual force, because the Jews, still feeling so uplifted and upbeat by the events they had just experienced, were hoping to delay their departure from there in order to collect the Egyptian treasures that the sea had cast ashore.
If this excitement could not be quenched, or at least contained within proper limits, nothing else of value could be built on it. Moreover, it was imperative that the Jews would not continue looking behind them with regret at how much more wealth had remained in Egypt, but would instead look ahead to blazing their own path.
They went on into the wilderness of Shur; they traveled three days in the wilderness and found no water: Having torn themselves away from Egypt, the source of their former physical and spiritual sustenance, the Jews now find themselves entirely without water. They have no idea how they will survive.
(23) They came to Marah, but they could not drink the water of Marah because it was bitter; that is why it was named Marah: Marah is the feminine form of mar, “bitter.” Living a self-sufficient, independent life has thus far proved quite painful. The innermost sentiments of the people, who are now bemoaning the loss of what they previously had in Egypt, are reflected in the bitterness of the water.
(24) And the people grumbled against Moses, saying, “What shall we drink?”: The emotional high brought on by the deliverance at the Sea of Reeds is already starting to wear off, and the complaints begin straightaway as soon as the first difficulties are encountered. In all fairness, those difficulties are real, not imagined, and that is why the people are not punished for grumbling. But they have still not learned how to approach their problems constructively.
(25) So he cried out to the Lord: Even Moses was completely at a loss for what he should do.
And the Lord showed him a piece of wood: “Wood” in Hebrew is etz, which also means “tree.” Desalination of water with the aid of a tree symbolizes a connection with both the Garden of Eden – with its Tree of Knowledge and Tree of Life – and the Torah, which is itself compared to the Tree of Life (Prov. 3:18).
He threw it into the water and the water became sweet: Thus, the people see clearly that this is no ordinary water. The point of this incident is its pedagogical effect: the Jews need to understand that the water (both physical and spiritual) that they will be drinking henceforth is very different from Egyptian water.
There He made for them a fixed rule: The literal translation is “There He made for them a statute and an ordinance.” In Marah the people are first introduced to the laws of the Torah. Since we are not told just which laws were given there, this verse should be interpreted as indicating a general change of approach.
If until now, at the crossing of the Sea of Reeds, the Jews were granted mercy (Chesed), severity is now the order of the day. The Jews are given a crisis to deal with – they have no water. This harshness is necessary as the first stage of the nation’s re-education and moral restructuring. It focuses them on law and justice (Gevurah), i.e., on life’s rigidity and limitations, on the need to operate within a given framework of circumstances. Without this severity, the original Chesed cannot endure, and will simply dissipate.
And there He put them to the test: In Hebrew, nisahu, from the root N‑S‑H, whence also nisayon, which means “test” or “ordeal,” but also “training” or “experience” (similarly using nisayon in the sense of “The Trials of the Patriarchs,” see Bible Dynamics on Genesis, 11.3 and 23.2. See also below 15.3, commentary on verse 16:4). Here, too, it would be correct to say that the people are not being tested in the conventional sense of verification, but are receiving training and gaining experience. As they encounter new problems and overcome crises, the Jewish people gradually gain experience in life, and rise to the level of maturity that the Torah, and life in the Land of Israel, will demand of them.
(26) He said, “If you will heed the Lord your God diligently, doing what is upright in His sight, giving ear to His commandments and keeping all His laws, then I will not bring upon you any of the diseases that I brought upon the Egyptians, for I the Lord am your healer”: God’s approach here is one of intimidation: “Surely you saw that the water was initially too bitter for drinking, and only thanks to the tree that I showed Moses did that water become potable. Know therefore that without Me you simply will not survive. Only by obeying Me every step of the way can you depend on My help, and on remaining healthy.”
This approach is intended to awaken in the people a “fear of God,” which is still very far from loving God. But at this initial stage, when the Jews have only very recently left Egypt, it is still impossible to communicate with them in any other terms. In general, the lower the level of a student’s development, the harder it is to deal with him. Only gradually, toward the end of their forty years of wanderings through the wilderness, will the people’s spiritual growth have advanced to the point that God can speak to them in the language of love, as reflected in the Book of Deuteronomy.
15.2. In Elim: Springs of Water and Palm Trees (15:27)
(27) And they came to Elim, where there were twelve springs of water and seventy palm trees; and they encamped there beside the water.
(27) And they came to Elim: I.e., having successfully put the crisis behind them, they journey onward.
Where there were twelve springs of water and seventy palm trees; and they encamped there beside the water: They now have water even in great abundance, for in Elim there are “twelve springs of water and seventy palm trees” (“palm trees” with no further qualification means date palms. The Torah is saying that the people now had water to drink and sweet, nourishing food to eat).
The numbers 12 and 70 in juxtaposition connect us back to the beginning of Exodus (1:5), where these numbers are essential indicators for the Jacob family (Jacob had twelve sons, who became the twelve tribes of Israel, and Jacob’s family that descended from Canaan to Egypt numbered seventy souls). Thus, upon leaving Egypt, the structure of Jacob’s family who had come there originally is now restored.
Elim’s twelve springs correspond to the twelve tribes of Israel, and the seventy date palms can alternatively represent the seventy nations of the world [74]. Thus, the Jewish people in all their diversity, as represented by the Twelve Tribes, are a source of life for the nations of the world.
15.3. God Gives Manna and Meat in the Wilderness (16:1-21)
(1) Setting out from Elim, the whole Israelite community came to the wilderness of Sin, which is between Elim and Sinai, on the fifteenth day of the second month after their departure from the land of Egypt.
(2) In the wilderness, the whole Israelite community grumbled against Moses and Aaron.
(3) The Israelites said to them, “If only we had died by the hand of the Lord in the land of Egypt, when we sat by the fleshpots, when we ate our fill of bread! For you have brought us out into this wilderness to starve this whole congregation to death.”
(4) And the Lord said to Moses, “I will rain down bread for you from the sky, and the people shall go out and gather each day that day’s portion — that I may thus test them, to see whether they will follow My instructions or not.
(5) But on the sixth day, when they apportion what they have brought in, it shall prove to be double the amount they gather each day.”
(6) So Moses and Aaron said to all the Israelites, “By evening you shall know it was the Lord who brought you out from the land of Egypt;
(7) and in the morning you shall behold the Presence of the Lord, because He has heard your grumblings against the Lord. For who are we that you should grumble against us?
(8) Since it is the Lord,” Moses continued, “who will give you flesh to eat in the evening and bread in the morning to the full, because the Lord has heard the grumblings you utter against Him, what is our part? Your grumbling is not against us, but against the Lord!”
(9) Then Moses said to Aaron, “Say to the whole Israelite community: Advance toward the Lord, for He has heard your grumbling.”
(10) And as Aaron spoke to the whole Israelite community, they turned toward the wilderness, and there, in a cloud, appeared the Presence of the Lord.
(11) The Lord spoke to Moses:
(12) “I have heard the grumbling of the Israelites. Speak to them and say: By evening you shall eat flesh, and in the morning you shall have your fill of bread; and you shall know that I the Lord am your God.”
(13) In the evening quail appeared and covered the camp; in the morning there was a fall of dew about the camp.
(14) When the fall of dew lifted, there, over the surface of the wilderness, lay a fine and flaky substance, as fine as frost on the ground.
(15) When the Israelites saw it, they said to one another, “What is it?” — for they did not know what it was. And Moses said to them, “That is the bread which the Lord has given you to eat.
(16) This is what the Lord has commanded: Gather as much of it as each of you requires to eat, an omer to a person for as many of you as there are; each of you shall fetch for those in his tent.”
(17) The Israelites did so, some gathering much, some little.
(18) But when they measured it by the omer, he who had gathered much had no excess, and he who had gathered little had no deficiency: they had gathered as much as they needed to eat.
(19) And Moses said to them, “Let no one leave any of it over until morning.”
(20) But they paid no attention to Moses; some of them left of it until morning, and it became infested with maggots and stank. And Moses was angry with them.
(21) So they gathered it every morning, each as much as he needed to eat; for when the sun grew hot, it would melt.
(1) Setting out from Elim: Each new leg of the journey brings a new lesson from the Almighty.
The whole Israelite community came: The people are gradually coming to realize and understand that they constitute a single, united community.
To the wilderness of Sin, which is between Elim and Sinai: They continue to advance toward Sinai; that is, to the giving of the Torah.
On the fifteenth day of the second month after their departure from the land of Egypt: They had left Egypt on the fifteenth day of the first month, which means that exactly a month has passed since the Exodus. The emphasis during this first month was on obedience training. But from the second month onward, the Jews are given more and more opportunity to assert their independence.
(2) In the wilderness, the whole Israelite community grumbled against Moses and Aaron: Earlier, when the issue was water, the Jews directed their resentment only toward Moses, but now they spare neither Moses nor Aaron.
The first wave of discontent concerned only water, the most essential of all human needs (water is an absolute necessity of life, thus symbolizing the barest essence). The people’s discontent was therefore directed toward Moses alone. But now this is not only about hunger, but about all the necessities and amenities of life.
The people seem to have completely forgotten the hardships of slavery, and now idealize the virtues of Egypt. Their latest grumblings are therefore directed also against Aaron, who had been living all along with the people in Egypt, and is thus intimately familiar with the conditions of life there, such as they were.
(3) The Israelites said to them, “If only we had died by the hand of the Lord in the land of Egypt, when we sat by the fleshpots, when we ate our fill of bread!” Only one month after the liberation, tales of the Jews as well-nourished Egyptian slaves have already begun to surface.
They begin to complain of hunger because by this time all the bread (matzah) that they brought out with them from Egypt has already been eaten. Thus, for the past month the Jews have still not freed themselves from Egypt, because they continued to eat Egyptian wheat, and were psychologically still dependent on Egypt. But it is now time for them to become self-sufficient.
For you have brought us out into this wilderness to starve this whole congregation to death: The slave generation does not believe that it was God Who brought them out of Egypt. They consider the Exodus a joint expedient by Moses and Aaron, and impute to them malevolent motives.
(4) And the Lord said to Moses, “I will rain down bread for you from the sky”: Although the grumbling is in the main unseemly, God’s objective is not to punish, but to educate. He therefore wants to teach the Jews that all their food comes from heaven.
And the people shall go out and gather each day that day’s portion — that I may thus test them, to see whether they will follow My instructions or not: Hebrew anaseh, “I may thus test them,” is used here not in the sense of “checking,” but in the sense of “giving a lesson, giving experience” (see also above 15.1, commentary on verse 15:25).
People had to see from their own experience that the world functions in accordance with the words of God, and also gain experience in keeping the commandments – not collecting manna on Shabbat.
(5) But on the sixth day, when they apportion what they have brought in, it shall prove to be double the amount they gather each day: When they discover that they have collected a double portion of manna – this will help them see that God rules the world.
(6) So Moses and Aaron said to all the Israelites, “By evening you shall know it was the Lord who brought you out from the land of Egypt”: The people believe that it was Moses and Aaron who brought them out of Egypt, and they therefore level their complaints against them. The bread that will fall from heaven, and also the meat they will receive, will counter this belief, by demonstrating to the people that the Exodus is happening by the will of the Almighty.
(7) And in the morning you shall behold the Presence of the Lord: Manna not only satiated the people, but also served to educate them, because they all experienced Divine grace on a daily basis. On weekdays each person collected exactly one omer (approximately 2,2 liters) of manna, all of which had to be eaten the same day – none could be left for the morrow. But on the sixth day of the week, the day preceding Shabbat, each person collected two omers, half of which was to be left for the next day, because on Shabbat no manna fell.
(8) Since it is the Lord,” Moses continued, “who will give you flesh to eat in the evening and bread in the morning to the full, because the Lord has heard the grumblings you utter”: The Lord has heard your complaints, and because this time He considers them justified, He has decided to limit Himself to educational measures exclusively. But later we will see that God begins to punish those who complain for no reason.
(9) Then Moses said to Aaron, “Say to the whole Israelite community: ‘Advance toward the Lord, for He has heard your grumbling’ ”: Moses is unable to explain the problem to the people himself, and is forced to speak through Aaron.
(10) And as Aaron spoke to the whole Israelite community, they turned toward the wilderness: They received an answer, and their food too, only by turning toward the wilderness – that is, by turning away from Egypt, with whom they had again begun to associate themselves (“If only we had died by the hand of the Lord in the land of Egypt, when we sat by the fleshpots, when we ate our fill of bread!,” v. 3).
And there, in a cloud, appeared the Presence of the Lord: The Divine Presence appears through the cloud, which travels ahead of the camp and sets the people’s direction of movement. The Jews need to understand that they will solve their problems only by moving toward the future, and not by returning to the past.
(11) The Lord spoke to Moses: The Almighty converses with Moses here in full view of the entire community of the Children of Israel, which serves as a lesson to them.
(12) “I have heard the grumbling of the Israelites. Speak to them and say: By evening you shall eat flesh, and in the morning you shall have your fill of bread: The Midrash explains: Their request for bread was proper, for they really did need it, therefore they will continue to receive bread every morning. But they asked for meat in an unworthy manner, for they had much cattle, and moreover, they could have made do without meat. God therefore gave them their meat at an inconvenient time of day, in the evening. But when in the future the Jews will again demand meat in this same way, they will be punished – they will die from eating that meat (Num. ch. 11).
And you shall know that I the Lord am your God: And then you will no longer level complaints or claims against Moses.
(13) In the evening quail appeared and covered the camp; in the morning there was a fall of dew about the camp: The text that follows discusses the manna in great detail, but there is no further mention of the quail. Apparently, once they received the meat the Jews lost all interest in it, because they really had no need for it to begin with.
(14) When the fall of dew lifted, there, over the surface of the wilderness, lay a fine and flaky substance, as fine as frost on the ground: The manna falls together with the dew. When the dew has evaporated, on the ground only the manna remains.
(15) When the Israelites saw it, they said to one another, “What is it” — for they did not know what it was: The manna thus takes its name from that question: Man hu?, “What is it?” But those words can also have a declarative meaning: “It is man!” (or “manna,” as it later became known in western translation).
Expecting in the morning to find bread (as Moses had said, v. 4), they could not understand what this stuff was that had actually fallen.
The Midrash adds that the taste of the manna and even its very essence both remained “undefined,” thus further reinforcing the “What is it?” idea. The manna could acquire almost any taste whatsoever, nor did its essential nature remain constant. Ordinary manna rotted overnight, but on Shabbat it remained edible for the entire following day. But far more remarkable still, the manna that God later commanded to collect and retain as a keepsake (“to be kept throughout the ages” – see v. 33-34 below) could be stored for an indefinite period of time. Therefore, the question “What is it?” remained such a prominent feature of the manna that it became the name of the thing itself.
And Moses said to them, “That is the bread which the Lord has given you to eat”: Because this will be your primary food, you should treat it accordingly.
(16) This is what the Lord has commanded: Gather as much of it as each of you requires to eat, an omer to a person for as many of you as there are; each of you shall fetch for those in his tent: Collect as much manna as necessary, as determined by the number of persons who need to be immediately fed. But you must make no attempt to stockpile it.
(17) The Israelites did so, some gathering much, some little: Each to the best of his ability. For some, the process of collecting the manna took longer, while others were able to collect it more quickly.
(18) But when they measured it by the omer, he who had gathered much had no excess, and he who had gathered little had no deficiency: “Gathered much” and “gathered little” refer to the actual time spent collecting the manna. Regardless of how much time was expended, it was impossible to collect any more nor any less than exactly one omer of manna for each family member.
They had gathered as much as they needed to eat: For the duration of their entire forty-year journey through the wilderness, the Jews received bread from heaven in rations of exactly one one-day serving per person per day (this was true of Shabbat as well, except that they always received their manna for Shabbat as part of a double ration that fell the day before).
(19) And Moses said to them, “Let no one leave any of it over until morning”: It was impossible to store up manna – by the next day it would always spoil. Unable to keep food in reserve, the Jews developed a feeling of dependence on Heaven, putting their constant hopes in God. It taught them to put their constant trust in Him.
(20) But they paid no attention to Moses; some of them left of it until morning, and it became infested with maggots and stank: It is very difficult for a person to live with the constant worry of not knowing what he will eat tomorrow. But such was the daily experience of the Jews with respect to their food during their entire stay in the wilderness.
And Moses was angry with them: Moses was angry because what those people had done demonstrated a lack of faith. But in fact, we could say that the real reason for this anger was that Moses himself, so long ago in his dialogue with God at the burning bush, likewise did not immediately believe the Almighty.
(21) So they gathered it every morning, each as much as he needed to eat: Gathering the manna each morning became the norm fairly soon. The people no longer tried to store it overnight.
For when the sun grew hot, it would melt: Once the dew had evaporated, the manna had to be collected rather quickly, because by the middle of the day it would melt. This underscored for the Jews the ephemeral nature of all their food.
15.4. The Manna and the Shabbat (16:22-36)
(22) On the sixth day they gathered double the amount of food, two omers for each; and when all the chieftains of the community came and told Moses,
(23) he said to them, “This is what the Lord meant: Tomorrow is a day of rest, a holy Shabbat of the Lord. Bake what you would bake and boil what you would boil; and all that is left put aside to be kept until morning.”
(24) So they put it aside until morning, as Moses had ordered; and it did not turn foul, and there were no maggots in it.
(25) Then Moses said, “Eat it today, for today is a Shabbat of the Lord; you will not find it today on the plain.
(26) Six days you shall gather it; on the seventh day, the Shabbat, there will be none.”
(27) Yet some of the people went out on the seventh day to gather, but they found nothing.
(28) And the Lord said to Moses, “How long will you men refuse to obey My commandments and My teachings?
(29) Mark that the Lord has given you the Shabbat; therefore He gives you two days’ food on the sixth day. Let everyone remain where he is: let no one leave his place on the seventh day.”
(30) So the people remained inactive on the seventh day.
(31) The house of Israel named it manna; it was like coriander seed, white, and it tasted like wafers in honey.
(32) Moses said, “This is what the Lord has commanded: Let one omer of it be kept throughout the ages, in order that they may see the bread that I fed you in the wilderness when I brought you out from the land of Egypt.”
(33) And Moses said to Aaron, “Take a jar, put one omer of manna in it, and place it before the Lord, to be kept throughout the ages.”
(34) As the Lord had commanded Moses, Aaron placed it before the Pact, to be kept.
(35) And the Israelites ate manna forty years, until they came to a settled land; they ate the manna until they came to the border of the land of Canaan.
(36) The omer is a tenth of an ephah.
(22) On the sixth day they gathered double the amount of food, two omers for each: The time they spent collecting the manna was the same as usual, but with twice the result. This is the blessing of the Shabbat.
And when all the chieftains of the community came and told Moses: Although God had informed Moses in advance that the Shabbat portion of manna would fall on the sixth day (16:5), Moses did not inform the people at that time of this unusual situation.
(23) He said to them, “This is what the Lord meant: Tomorrow is a day of rest, a holy Shabbat of the Lord”: This is the very first time that the people are charged with observing a special Divine law of this kind.
Immediately after the Exodus, as Israel began their journey through the wilderness, the commandment to observe the Shabbat was clearly communicated from Above, and became an abiding reality. Ever since that time, the Jews and all of humanity have faithfully kept count of the days of the week. Thus, the manna synchronized the “human Shabbat” and “the Shabbat of Creation.”
Bake what you would bake and boil what you would boil: Bake and cook whatever you wish. But you must do so today, before the onset of the Shabbat.
And all that is left put aside to be kept until morning: You may also put aside manna for tomorrow, but then you will no longer be allowed to bake and cook.
(24) So they put it aside until morning, as Moses had ordered; and it did not turn foul, and there were no maggots in it: Thus they understood the special status of the Shabbat that had been demonstrated clearly from Above.
(25) Then Moses said, “Eat it today, for today is a Shabbat of the Lord; you will not find it today on the plain”: The Midrash adds: They were alarmed, fearing that perhaps the manna had ceased, and would never fall again. So Moses told them: “You will not find it today.” That is, today you will not find it, but tomorrow you will find manna again.
(26) Six days you shall gather it; on the seventh day, the Shabbat, there will be none: The commandment concerning the Sabbath appears before the people for the first time as a consecration that distinguishes it from ordinary days: the manna does not fall on Shabbat.
(27) Yet some of the people went out on the seventh day to gather, but they found nothing: They went out not because they didn’t have enough food on that day, Shabbat, but because they felt generally insecure, as people normally will when they have no supply of food stored up for the ongoing future.
(28) And the Lord said to Moses, “How long will you men refuse to obey My commandments and My teachings?” No actual sanctions are applied at this stage. The goal of this censure is simply to educate, by dishonoring those who disobey.
(29) Mark that the Lord has given you the Shabbat; therefore He gives you two days’ food on the sixth day: There is a transition here, from the previous verse, where God is speaking in the first person (“My commandments and My teachings”) to this verse, which refers to God in the third person (“the Lord has given”). This is Moses now speaking. He is elaborating the “commandments” and “teachings” of which God spoke in the previous verse.
Let everyone remain where he is: let no one leave his place on the seventh day: The prohibition of walking far beyond the boundaries of human habitation on Shabbat is derived from this verse.
(30) So the people remained inactive on the seventh day: The people of Israel are gradually assimilating the Divine commandments and principles. By remaining inactive on the Shabbat, the people demonstrate their recognition that both the manna and the Shabbat are the Almighty’s gifts to them.
(31) The house of Israel named it manna: This bread, “manna from heaven, the perfect Jewish food” bears the name “man,” meaning “What is it?” In other words, the question “What is it?” – the interest that a person shows in understanding the universe – is the very essence of this food. That question, which has sustained the Jewish people in every age, is the Jewish “bread” that is the foundation of their existence and spiritual growth.
Expanding on the theme that the desire to know and the ability to ask “What is it?” is the “bread” that sustains the Jewish people, the Torah offers a more detailed description of the manna, in order to clarify the nature of that question and how it should be asked. It must be detailed, open, and very tasty.
It was like coriander seed: Like coriander, which consists of many tiny seeds, the question should be as detailed as possible (reduced to its smallest possible components).
White: The color white represents a blank page. The question as asked should be open, which means that the questioner should be unblinkered, having no preconceived notions about what kind of answer to expect, and ready to receive even the most multifarious response.
And it tasted like wafers in honey: The question should be “very tasty.” That is, a person should be capable of deriving actual pleasure from an intellectual perception of the world.
(32) Moses said, “This is what the Lord has commanded: Let one omer of it be kept throughout the ages, in order that they may see the bread that I fed you in the wilderness when I brought you out from the land of Egypt”: The intent of this instruction is to emphasize for the Jews once again the miraculous nature of the manna. The manna would normally rot by the next day, and even for Shabbat it would keep for two days at most. But when preserved in this vessel, it will remain intact for many generations to come.
(33) And Moses said to Aaron, “Take a jar, put one omer of manna in it, and place it before the Lord, to be kept throughout the ages”: This instruction was given later, after the Tabernacle had been built (later in this book of Exodus).
(34) As the Lord had commanded Moses, Aaron placed it before the Pact, to be kept: Literally, “before the Testimony.” This refers to the Two Tablets of the Law that were stored in the Holy Ark within the Tabernacle (see 25:21), and are called “the two tablets of the Testimony,” or “Pact” (32:15).
(35) And the Israelites ate manna forty years, until they came to a settled land; they ate the manna until they came to the border of the land of Canaan: Moses inserted this passage even much later than that – at the end of the forty years of wanderings in the wilderness. There is a well-known Talmudic principle that “there is no chronological order (lit., ‘there is no earlier and later’) in the Torah.” The chapters and verses of the Torah do not necessarily appear in strict chronological sequence, particularly when there is a need to reveal a certain topic at a particular point, or create semantic or associative connections.
(36) The omer is a tenth of an ephah: These are measurements of the volume of pourable solids. An omer is approximately 2.2 liters, and an ephah is thus about 22 liters. The Torah makes this ratio explicit in order to connect the manna with the sacrifices, since the sizes of meal offerings mandated by the Torah are indicated in units called “tenths” (e.g., 29:40), which means tenths of an ephah (Num. 28:5). Thus, the laws of the sacrifices to be given later will be associated with the memory of the manna.
15.5. Moses Strikes the Rock at God’s Command to Extract Water from It (17:1-7)
(1) From the wilderness of Sin the whole Israelite community continued by stages as the Lord would command. They encamped at Rephidim, and there was no water for the people to drink.
(2) The people quarreled with Moses. “Give us water to drink,” they said; and Moses replied to them, “Why do you quarrel with me? Why do you try the Lord?”
(3) But the people thirsted there for water; and the people grumbled against Moses and said, “Why did you bring us up from Egypt, to kill us and our children and livestock with thirst?”
(4) Moses cried out to the Lord, saying, “What shall I do with this people? Before long they will be stoning me!”
(5) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Pass before the people; take with you some of the elders of Israel, and take along the rod with which you struck the Nile, and set out.
(6) I will be standing there before you on the rock at Horeb. Strike the rock and water will issue from it, and the people will drink.” And Moses did so in the sight of the elders of Israel.
(7) The place was named Massah and Meribah, because the Israelites quarreled and because they tried the Lord, saying, “Is the Lord present among us or not?”
(1) From the wilderness of Sin the whole Israelite community continued by stages as the Lord would command: The people continue to journey through the wilderness, gradually coming to the realization that they are not merely “leaving Egypt,” but advancing at the direction of the Almighty to a very specific destination (both literally and figuratively).
They encamped at Rephidim, and there was no water for the people to drink: When the problem of lack of water for drinking was encountered the first time (15:23), it was solved by ostensibly natural means (throwing a piece of wood into the water). But this time the same problem will be solved by an actual miracle – extracting water from a rock. The people are forced to transition from feeling that the world is governed solely by the laws of nature to acknowledging supernatural, Divine control. This is an important step in preparing the Jews to receive the Torah.
(2) The people quarreled with Moses. “Give us water to drink,” they said; and Moses replied to them, “Why do you quarrel with me? Why do you try the Lord?”: There is nothing wrong with asking for water, but Moses himself senses no problem, and to him it seems that the people are grumbling without any real cause.
(3) But the people thirsted there for water; and the people grumbled against Moses and said, “Why did you bring us up from Egypt, to kill us and our children and livestock with thirst?”: The situation now worsens, as the people accuse Moses of a wanton desire to see them die of thirst. Such accusations are of course groundless, but the people feel that Moses is insufficiently attentive to their problems, and this is their reaction.
(4) Moses cried out to the Lord, saying, “What shall I do with this people? Before long they will be stoning me!”: Although Moses understands that his approach is not working, he is bewildered, and at a loss to know how to deal with the situation.
(5) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Pass before the people; take with you some of the elders of Israel: We will soon see that the elders are needed as witnesses, so that everything will happen “before their very eyes.” That is, in order for the elders to confirm that there was no source of water in the rock previously, and that water flowed from the rock simply as the result of the blow from Moses’ staff.
And take along the rod with which you struck the Nile, and set out: But doesn’t Moses know which rod is meant? Why must God specify “the rod with which you struck the Nile”?
The point is that there is a parallel here between the Jewish people and the Egyptians. God is saying to Moses: “Just as in Egypt you had to strike the river with your rod in order to perform miracles for the education of the Egyptians, here too you will need to strike the rock with your rod in order to educate the Jews.”
(6) I will be standing there before you on the rock at Horeb: Horeb and Mount Sinai are one and the same. The image of “water flowing from the rock” precedes even the giving of the Torah (water is in fact a metaphor for the Torah; see, e.g., “Ho, all who are thirsty, come for water,” Isa. 55:1).
Strike the rock and water will issue from it, and the people will drink: Although the Jews had left Egypt some time before, psychologically they were still slaves, with a mindset of unwaveringly following every command with immediate and complete obedience, as represented by a physical blow and its tangible result. Forty years later, however, Moses will be dealing with an entirely new generation that will require a completely different lesson (which was to be achieved in that case not by striking the rock, but by speaking to it). Moses’ failure to understand that change of circumstances led to tragic consequences (see Num. 20:7-13).
And Moses did so in the sight of the elders of Israel: The elders testified to the occurrence of a miracle.
(7) The place was named Massah and Meribah, because the Israelites quarreled, and because they tried the Lord: The literal meaning of Massah-u-Merivah is “trial (i.e., ordeal) and strife.”
And because they tried the Lord, saying, “Is the Lord present among us or not?”: Despite all the miracles they had witnessed, they still failed to sense God’s presence among them. Another display of God’s direct participation in their lives is therefore needed, which now follows immediately, in the form of the war with Amalek.
15.6. The War with Amalek (17:8-13)
(8) Amalek came and fought with Israel at Rephidim.
(9) Moses said to Joshua, “Pick some men for us, and go out and do battle with Amalek. Tomorrow I will station myself on the top of the hill, with the rod of God in my hand.”
(10) Joshua did as Moses told him and fought with Amalek, while Moses, Aaron, and Hur went up to the top of the hill.
(11) Then, whenever Moses held up his hand, Israel prevailed; but whenever he let down his hand, Amalek prevailed.
(12) But Moses’ hands grew heavy; so they took a stone and put it under him and he sat on it, while Aaron and Hur, one on each side, supported his hands; thus his hands remained steady until the sun set.
(13) And Joshua overwhelmed the people of Amalek with the sword.
(8) Amalek came: How could Amalek undertake a war with Israel, when all other surrounding nations were left trembling in the wake of the annihilation of Pharaoh’s army?
Amalek is Esau's grandson (Gen. 36:12). Thus, as a descendant of Abraham Amalek claims that he too is an heir to Abraham’s “chosenness” (albeit its negative aspects). He is a great opponent of the Jews: Balaam in his prophecy describes Amalek as “a leading nation” (Num. 24:20). Because Amalek is the antithesis of everything that Israel represents, Amalek cannot but attack the Israelites when they leave Egypt to take their place in history.
Amalek's attacks on Israel continue to occur throughout Jewish history. But we shall postpone our analysis of this topic until we examine the passage in Deuteronomy (25:19) where God commands that Amalek must be obliterated.
And fought with Israel at Rephidim: The Midrash sees this war as the result of the Jewish people’s failure to feel gratitude to the Almighty, and to recognize His presence. The Midrash describes this situation with the following parable:
“A man raises his young son onto his shoulders, and they set off for a stroll. The son notices some object on the ground and says, “Give it to me, father.” The father picks it up and gives it to his son. And so a second time and a third. When soon they meet a passerby, the son asks him, “Have you seen my father?” Says the father to his son, “So, do you really have no idea where your father is?” He throws his son to the ground, where he is soon bitten by a dog.”
The above Midrash notwithstanding, a nation that does not know how to fight, or is unable to fight, can never be a nation in the full sense of the word. It was therefore necessary that God’s “program” for raising the Jewish people to responsible, independent “adulthood” would include the ordeal of battling their enemies.
(9) Moses said to Joshua: Later we will learn that Joshua was one of the leaders of the tribe of Ephraim. His name was originally “Hosea,” which was only later changed to “Joshua” (Num. 13:16). And yet he is here already called “Joshua.” The Torah will often refer to people and places using the names by which they will come to be known at some future time, which might happen only in a later generation (for more about Joshua, see below.)
“Pick some men for us, and go out and do battle with Amalek: During the clash with the Egyptians at the crossing of the Sea of Reeds, Moses tells the people, “The Lord will battle for you; you hold your peace!” But here he gives the order to fight. At the first stage of the Exodus, the people of Israel were not yet ready for war, and were not capable of fighting for themselves. But now God is educating them as a free people, and therefore demands that they take responsibility for their own destiny.
Tomorrow I will station myself on the top of the hill, with the rod of God in my hand: From the outset of the war, Moses believes that the Jews will emerge victorious by virtue of a miracle.
(10) Joshua did as Moses told him and fought with Amalek, while Moses, Aaron, and Hur went up to the top of the hill: Rather than going alone, Moses proactively takes Aaron and Hur with him as his “support group.”
Hur: Hur was a son of Miriam, who was married to Caleb, a leader of the tribe of Judah, and one of the twelve scouts sent to spy out the land of Canaan (Num. 13:6). Hur’s grandson was Bezalel, the chief architect of God’s Tabernacle (Exod. 31:1 ff.).
(11) Then, whenever Moses held up his hand, Israel prevailed; but whenever he let down his hand, Amalek prevailed: The Talmud adds: “But did Moses’ hands actually wage war or crush the enemy? Not so. The text only signifies that so long as Israel turned their thoughts upward and subjected their hearts to their Father in heaven, they prevailed, but otherwise they fell” (Mishnah Rosh Hashanah, 3:8). Thus, Moses’ hands served as a kind of banner. When the Israelites cast their eyes upon Moses’ raised hands, they turned their thoughts to Heaven, and sensed that they belonged to the Almighty, which led to victory. But when Moses’ lowered his hands, the people turned their eyes toward the ground, which led them to lose sight of their destiny and thus to suffer defeat.
The perspective of the Torah text itself, however, is somewhat different. There is an organic interconnection between Moses and Israel that operates in both directions. The position of Moses’ hands reflects Israel’s frame of mind. Just as Moses’ raised hands support the faith of the people, so does their faith strengthen Moses’ hands. When the people lose faith, Moses finds it difficult to keep his hands uplifted.
(12) But Moses’ hands grew heavy: It is quite difficult to hold one’s hands uplifted for any significant length of time. At some point, the people’s faith weakens to such a degree that Moses has no more strength.
So they took a stone and put it under him and he sat on it: When in a crisis situation Moses sits down, his “stature” (and with it, the level of Jewish faith) is reduced. But this is necessary so that Moses can find the support he needs.
While Aaron and Hur, one on each side, supported his hands: In a difficult moment, Moses needs Aaron and Hur. A little later we shall discuss an approach to understanding this passage within the historical context of the development of monotheistic faith.
Thus his hands remained steady until the sun set: The word emunah here indicates steadiness or stability, but the word’s far more common meaning is, simply, “faith.” We can thus understand this verse as saying that Moses’ hands served as a symbol of faith.
Until the sun set: The battle lasted the entire day. But the future war with Amalek will continue throughout human history, “until the sun sets.”
(13) And Joshua overwhelmed the people of Amalek with the sword: The literal meaning of vaychalosh is “weakened.” Amalek was weakened in this battle, but not destroyed, for it had to survive in order to continue its war against Israel.
15.7. Joshua as Commander of the Armed Forces
There was no mention whatsoever of Joshua before the war with Amalek, but suddenly we meet him here as a thoroughly competent military leader. This is not entirely consistent with the conditions of slavery that the Jews had endured in Egypt.
The Midrash believes that Joshua (and some of Joseph’s other descendants, possibly even a substantial segment of the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh) were not slaves in Egypt, nor did they live in Goshen, but were close to Egyptian royalty, and even owned small estates in Canaan, which at that time was a vassal state of Egypt. In particular, the Midrash says that Joshua was born in Jerusalem, and served as a mercenary in Pharaoh’s army, which is why Moses (who was also raised in the Egyptian palace) appoints him here as commander in chief.
The Torah text itself tells us nothing of this, and the question remains open whether it was really so. But we can assume that there are, in general, many details that the Torah does not mention, because its major focus is on providing information at the national level, by relating the history of the people as a whole. Given that approach, this is not the place for the Torah to elaborate on Joshua’s special status, or that of certain segments of the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh. These are seen as only tangential details with respect to what the Torah deems truly essential for us to know.
15.8. Aaron and Hur in Historical Perspective
When Moses’ hands – and the people’s faith – are flagging, Aaron and Hur, Moses’ brother and nephew, support him. But what is the underlying meaning of this story?
It seems that Scripture here is being intentionally obscure, only hinting at what it is actually trying to convey. In essence, the Torah is saying that something is missing in what Moses represents, that more people are needed to support Moses’ faith on either side of him. Thus, two other spiritual forces, a brother and a nephew, must support Jewish faith during the war with Amalek. From an historical perspective, it is clear that these forces were Christianity and Islam. Aaron symbolizes Christianity, and Hur – Islam.
Maimonides notes that God has given Islam and Christianity exceptional capacity for spreading the ideas of Judaism throughout the world. And that the affinity of those religions to Judaism also created conditions that were especially conducive to the survival of the Jews in exile, allowing them to live among their own “religious family,” as it were,
Indeed, we see that, in the long run, the Jews as a people survived in the diaspora only in Christian and Islamic countries. To be sure, the Jews’ relationship with those other two religions was a source of severe tension for many long centuries, and created enormous problems. But those relationships were ultimately what saved the Jewish people, and made it possible for them to earn and retain the extraordinary prominence that is now acknowledged and respected virtually everywhere in the world [75].
Life in the Jews’ own state likewise poses problems on a very large scale – a national scale. This is why Jewish faith in the Land of Israel is characterized by gadlut, “greatness.” When the Jews go into exile (that is, when Moses leaves the central battleground to ascend the hill), those problems assume a smaller scale, reduced to the level of the individual and the community. At that point Judaism has the status of katnut, “smallness” (Moses sitting on a stone). In such times, Christianity and Islam actually provide important support for the Jewish faith.
15.9. Moses’ Greatness as an Obstacle to Victory over the Amalekites
Rabbi A. I. Kook offers a different interpretation of these events. He says that Moses cannot himself wage war with Amalek, because Moses, the greatest of all prophets for all time, sees the course of history in its full eternal context for all generations to come. Moses therefore understands that every “force of evil” – even, and especially, the egregiously pernicious Amalek – has its own unique function in the world. Specifically, the world needs Amalek to serve as an antipodal opposition to the Jewish people, the adversary with whom they are in eternal conflict. The Jewish nation needs that never-ending conflict for their own proper development.
Because Moses understands so well the positive role of Amalek, he cannot destroy Amalek, and, in truth, he cannot even enter the fray with the Amalekites. This is a known problem with over-developed thinkers, who, because they see the positive aspects of the enemy so clearly, find it difficult to fight the enemy.
And so, instead of fighting Amalek himself, Moses appoints Joshua, who wages the war at a considerably lower level, and is thus able to defeat Amalek.
But still for the same reason, Moses, even up on the hill, is fully aware of Amalek's historical importance, and cannot keep his arms raised. To defeat Amalek now, he must “lower his stature” by sitting on a stone, so that the nearby forces – who represent not all the generations of eternity, but only the pragmatic exigencies of the present moment – will come to support his hands. And this is the only way the Jews can have the victory.
The Jews’ faith here is thus much weaker than it could be (Moses' hands are held up for him on either side, because he has no strength to hold them up himself). With only that limited faith, Joshua cannot completely destroy Amalek, and only “weakens” him.
15.10. Blotting Out the Memory of Amalek (17:14-16)
(14) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Inscribe this in a document as a reminder, and read it aloud to Joshua: I will utterly blot out the memory of Amalek from under heaven!”
(15) And Moses built an altar and named it Adonai-nissi.
(16) He said, “It means, ‘Hand upon the throne of the Lord!’ The Lord will be at war with Amalek throughout the ages.”
(14) Then the Lord said to Moses, “Inscribe this in a document as a reminder”: This is the first time in the Torah that we encounter an instruction to preserve memory by committing it to writing, instead of simple oral transmission. It is a document whose purpose is to preserve memory. Because the war with Amalek will last for many generations, a written record of it is needed to serve as a guide for the future.
And read it aloud to Joshua: Because Joshua is now commander in chief, it is essential for him to understand the meaning of this directive. The Midrash sees in this an allusion to the succession of leadership in the Jewish nation, which after Moses’ death, will pass to Joshua.
I will utterly blot out the memory of Amalek from under heaven! Joshua has only weakened Amalek. But God now confirms that this was just the beginning of the task, to be completed in due time, that will ultimately end with a total annihilation of Amalek.
I will utterly blot out: Later, in Deuteronomy, erasing the memory of Amalek is expressed as a solemn commandment that is binding on the entire Jewish nation. “When the Lord your God grants you safety from all your enemies around you … you shall blot out the memory of Amalek from under heaven. Do not forget!” (Deut. 25:19)
Here, however, God says, “I will utterly blot out the memory of Amalek from under heaven!” For now, God Himself assumes responsibility for this task.
I will utterly blot out the memory of Amalek: This is not about blotting out all memory of Amalek in the conventional sense. On the contrary, by being recorded in the Torah, this memory will remain forever. Rather, the “memory of Amalek” refers to the people who are living reminders of Amalek – his heirs, and the successors to his work. Those people must be destroyed.
From under heaven: In this world as we know it, the world that is “under heaven,” there is be no place for Amalek, the quintessential bearer of evil. But above heaven, in higher worlds, there is a place for everything, because there even evil plays a positive creative role.
(15) And Moses built an altar: As a means of reinforcing in the minds of the people a correct understanding of the events that have just taken place, Moses builds an altar of gratitude. Amalek “came” (17:8) because the Jews did not feel a connection with God. To correct this failing, Moses builds an altar and proclaims, “The Lord is my banner,” in order to give the people a stronger sense of God’s eternal presence, which is the basis for victory over Amalek. Whenever the Jewish nation falls short in their awareness of God’s presence among them, Amalek attacks.
And named it Adonai-nissi: “The Lord is my banner.” Only by turning to Heaven can the Jewish people be victorious. Moses’ hands are symbolic of this. His hands, raised to heaven in the heat of the battle, served as a banner for the Jewish people.
(16) He said, It means, ‘Hand upon the throne of the Lord!’: This wording is a typical formulation of an oath.
The Lord will be at war with Amalek throughout the ages: The nature of this war will be further revealed in Deuteronomy (25:17 ff.), where we will examine it in greater detail.
Chapter 16. The Sinai Covenant as the Central Theme of the Book of Exodus
16.1. The Sinai Covenant: Yitro and Mishpatim
The central part of the book of Exodus, the next two weekly portions, Yitro and Mishpatim (portions 5 and 6, respectively), describe the Sinai Covenant.
The Ten Commandments – the most general principles of how humans are expected to relate to God – are presented in the Yitro portion, while the Mishpatim portion is a legal code of laws and regulations. The relationship of these two portions is therefore usually described as “the general outline followed by its detailed elaboration.”
We would certainly not deny the validity of that approach. But following the premise of “Moses’ Torah” and “Aaron’s Torah” for adjacent pairs of Torah portions, as we have previously explained, we would propose that the relationship of these two portions can be understood somewhat differently. I.e., each of these portions has its own unique outlook on the world in general, and humankind in particular.
Yitro, the “Moses” portion, puts the emphasis on ideals, chosenness, and achieving greatness. Moses believes that man is pure by nature, and always seeks a path to the Almighty. Man only needs help and to be shown the way, which is what the giving of the Torah is meant to accomplish.
But in Aaron’s portion, Mishpatim, the emphasis is instead on correcting human shortcomings and atoning for sins. Because man is inherently prone to sin, the main task of religious guidance, according to this view, is to help a person overcome his sinful temptations, and, if possible, when he does succumb, to cleanse him of the consequences. The Mishpatim portion therefore focuses on laws, and on the penalties that must be paid for committing crimes. It begins with the laws that punish murder, violence, and human trafficking.
These two approaches complement each other. Initially, in the Yitro and Mishpatim portions, as well as in the seventh and eighth portions, the Terumah and Tetzaveh pair, the two paths diverge. The gap between them keeps widening, leading to the crisis of the golden calf. But then, in the process of resolving that crisis, the two approaches become integrated. We will discuss all this in greater detail below.
16.2. A Torah for the Jews and a Torah for All of Humanity
In order to clarify what the giving of the Torah actually means, we must first seriously consider, through the eyes of the Torah, the nature of the relationship of the Jewish people to the nations of the world.
At the onset of Jewish history, when God first chose Abraham for his singular mission, the Torah states that the Almighty told him, “all the families of the earth shall bless themselves by you” (Genesis 12:3). It was for this that God chose Abraham, and, in fact, the other two Patriarchs, Isaac and Jacob, as well, whose chosenness God explained similarly. Thus, God’s purpose in choosing the Patriarchs and their descendants, the Jewish people, was to advance all of humanity. The Jews are chosen only to facilitate the advancement all the other nations of the world.
The Midrash relates that the Almighty before the giving of the Torah had wanted to give the Torah to all of humanity, and He offered it to each nation on earth in turn, but none would agree to accept it, because the demands of the Torah did not coincide with their own ethical and religious principles such as they were. Ultimately, only the Jews agreed to accept the Torah. In other words, at the Revelation at Sinai the Jewish people were chosen simply because they were the only ones who would agree to be chosen.
In a future era, however, the Torah will be transmitted to all mankind. The prophet Isaiah famously predicted (2:3): “And the many peoples shall go and say: ‘Come, let us go up to the Mount of the Lord, to the House of the God of Jacob; that He may instruct us in His ways, and that we may walk in His paths.’ for instruction shall come forth from Zion, the word of the Lord from Jerusalem.”
The Jewish people themselves do not need the Torah to come forth from Zion, nor the word of the Lord from Jerusalem – the Jews received the Torah long ago at Sinai. But then the Jews carried it with them from there to Canaan, to Zion, and to Jerusalem. The Jewish people have tested the Divine teachings on themselves by making it an integral part of their lives. This involved also adding the books of the Prophets and the Ketuvim to the Torah, such that the Torah is now the Tanakh – the twenty-four books of the Jewish scriptures. The Torah has thus become accessible to all peoples, making Zion and Jerusalem the place from which the Torah emanates for all of humanity.
The reason that the other nations refused to accept the Torah at Sinai was that the “Torah of the Sinai” is too heavenly, too transcendental, far removed from ordinary, natural life – incomprehensible and therefore inaccessible. However, after the Torah has passed through Zion, through Jerusalem, and through the life history of the Jewish people, the Divine teachings are no longer only the “Torah of Heaven,” for they are now embodied in the Tanakh in its entirety, which is completely rooted on the earth. At that point, all the nations of the world can then begin to receive the Divine light.
Indeed, only after the Torah had been transformed into the Tanakh did the nations of the world become interested in it. Besides translating it so that all peoples could read it in their own language, the nations based their religious belief systems completely on the Tanakh. In other words, all the nations perceive that the Divine light comes to them not directly from Heaven, but must first traverse all of Jewish history, and only then can humanity receive that Divine light. That is why the nations call Jewish history “sacred,” and why it occupies such a prominent position in the history of the entire human race.
Zion (i.e., Jewish history) is an immanent Divine revelation that is inherent in everyday life, supplementing the transcendental Divine revelation that came from Heaven at Sinai. This supplementing of the transcendental with the immanent, which occurs throughout the course of Jewish history, is needed in order for the Revelation to be accepted, not only by the Jewish people, but eventually by all of humanity.
Thus, one nation is not the ultimate destination of Divine revelation, but only a single link in its transmission. At Sinai the Jews brought down the Torah from heaven, proceeded to Zion, processed the Torah into a more “humanly accessible” Tanakh, and then passed it on to all the peoples of the world, thus transmitting the Divine light to all of humanity. In this does the Jewish mission consist.
The Book of Deuteronomy formulates the status of this Divine doctrine as follows: “Moses charged us with the Teaching as the heritage of the congregation of Jacob” (Deut. 33:4). But this does not mean that the Torah is given only to the community of Jacob. The Torah is given to all of mankind, but it is in the “spiritual possession” of the Jews only, in the sense that they are the “professionals” who explain the Torah to all other peoples.
We can draw an analogy to this from how we generally perceive fiction. An author writes a book for all readers, and its published text then becomes available for comment and discussion by all who are capable of understanding that text. But only the author owns the book as his “intellectual property.” Among the most important rights conferred by that ownership is the fundamental right to interpret the meaning of the words of the text. Readers of the book may find in it additional meanings and associations with their own lives and other things in the world, but that is only a supplemental understanding. The foundational interpretation – the understanding of what is meant by any given phrase of the text – is the exclusive prerogative of the author.
It is in this sense that the Torah calls itself “the heritage of the congregation of Jacob.” The Jewish people are not the Torah’s authors, for it was given to them by the Almighty. The Jewish people are His co-author.
The idea of the Jewish people as “co-authors of the Torah together with God” finds expression in a significant part of the Five Books. For example, almost the entire book of Deuteronomy is essentially a speech delivered by Moses, which becomes part of Torah text. Not only Moses, however, but the entire Jewish people took an active part in the writing of the Torah, and not merely with words, but mainly with their actions that were recorded in the Torah. And this is all the more true of the Tanakh, which is an inseparable element of Jewish history.
Because the “congregation of Jacob” has co-authored the Torah together with the Almighty, the Torah, and the rest of Tanakh even more so, are the “heritage of the congregation of Jacob,” which means that only the Jewish people and Jewish tradition can correctly interpret it.
Of course, none of this prevents anyone else from offering further comments and suggesting additional understanding and interpretation. On the contrary, such contributions reveal new aspects of Divine revelation to the world, and are therefore vitally important. But these new aspects can never supersede the foundational Jewish commentary; they can only complement it.
When the Almighty, the primary author of the Torah, transmitted it from Heaven, He communicated to the Jewish people, his co-authors, an in-depth understanding of the Torah, and conferred on them the right to interpret its text. From then onward, the understanding of the Torah and the Tanakh are inseparable from this tradition, maintained and developed by the Jewish people over millennia. Thus, while the Torah is intended to benefit all of humanity, it is the inheritance of the Jewish people alone – their possession and legacy.
However, throughout history there have been two opposing models for understanding the Divine light of Judaism.
The first model – incorrect from the Jewish standpoint – perceives the light of Tanakh, but only while severing it from the Jews themselves. Classical Christianity has followed this path, declaring, “We have your text, and you are now superfluous to us. Moreover, we have our own additions to the text, and our own teachers to interpret it. Therefore, we accept the ancient Jewish heritage, but we reject modern Judaism.”
In the terminology of the Jewish tradition itself, this approach is seen as the bifurcation of Aaron and Moses, which resulted in the creation of the golden calf – “attaching” to God an earthly image. The result of this attachment was to replace a direct understanding of Divinity with Shituf, “companionism” (see below for details).
The second model, which is the Jewish one, sees the peoples of the world as participating in the Tanakh only within the context of Jewish tradition, and not in isolation from it (as per the Christian view). This path is the one adopted and followed by the Bnei Noah movement – “the Descendants of Noah”, “the Noahides” (their commitment to interpreting the Torah faithfully, according to Jewish tradition, also includes upholding and fulfilling the Seven Noahide commandments, that according to Jewish Law are incumbent upon all of mankind).
There were few such people (Noahides) in previous generations, but in our time, with the return of the Jewish nation to the Land of Israel and strengthening of Jewish influence on the world, this movement is gradually seeing a resurgence, as it becomes a “universal Judaism” for all of humanity.
Chapter 17. Jethro’s Role in the Torah
17.1. Jethro and His Connection to the Giving of Torah
Yitro, the Torah portion that recounts the events of the giving of the Torah, begins with the words, “Jethro … heard...” This construction, extremely common in Biblical Hebrew, requires the verb to precede the subject; thus, the portion begins with vayishma, “And he heard,” which might also have become the name of the portion itself (quite often, a weekly portion will receive its name from its very first word).
However, when the Sages of the era of the Babylonian Talmud divided the Torah into weekly portions, and chose names for those portions, they named this one for the non-Jew Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law. This implies that something very profound connects Jethro with the giving of the Torah.
One interpretation of this connection is as follows. So long as among the nations of the world there is no person like Jethro ready to hear and receive the Torah, even the Jewish people will not be able to receive it. The Torah can be given to the Jews only when people sufficiently mature to understand it have begun to appear even among the general world population.
As the Exodus is unfolding, there are already two groups of non-Jews who are ready to accept the Torah. These are the eirev rav (“the mixed multitude” who left Egypt with the Jews), and Jethro and his entourage. Although both groups joined the Jews, they did so in different ways, thus creating two models of connecting the world’s Jews and non-Jews.
The eirev rav is fully integrated into Jewish society, becoming full members of the Jewish nation in every sense [76].
Jethro, on the other hand, is attracted by religious and philosophical considerations, and by the idea of holiness, but he does not want to lose his own national identity, and he is not interested in becoming a Jew. Nonetheless, his insistence on such “national separation” is not at all a flaw – on the contrary, thanks to this he brings Divine Revelation to his people, and formulates a scheme for transmitting the principles of the Jewish religion to all of humanity.
Just as the idea of holiness advanced by Abraham could appear only after the idea of justice formulated by the laws of Hammurabi [77] appeared in the world, so Moses could undertake to fulfill his mission only after Jethro appeared.
The moral and ethical development of civilization is a necessary condition for the emergence of the Jewish people and their transition to further stages of development. This is because the calling of the Jewish people is to promote all of humanity, and not only itself. The Jews are an instrument through which God influences humanity, and an instrument can be used only when the people who are to benefit from its use are at least minimally prepared for that.
17.2. Jethro Comes to Moses (18:1-12)
(1) Jethro priest of Midian, Moses’ father-in-law, heard all that God had done for Moses and for Israel His people, how the Lord had brought Israel out from Egypt.
(2) So Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, took Zipporah, Moses’ wife, after she had been sent home,
(3) and her two sons — of whom one was named Gershom, that is to say, “I have been a stranger in a foreign land”;
(4) and the other was named Eliezer, meaning, “The God of my father was my help, and He delivered me from the sword of Pharaoh.”
(5) Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, brought Moses’ sons and wife to him in the wilderness, where he was encamped at the mountain of God.
(6) He sent word to Moses, “I, your father-in-law Jethro, am coming to you, with your wife and her two sons.”
(7) Moses went out to meet his father-in-law; he bowed low and kissed him; each asked after the other’s welfare, and they went into the tent.
(8) Moses then recounted to his father-in-law everything that the Lord had done to Pharaoh and to the Egyptians for Israel’s sake, all the hardships that had befallen them on the way, and how the Lord had delivered them.
(9) And Jethro rejoiced over all the kindness that the Lord had shown Israel when He delivered them from the Egyptians.
(10) “Blessed be the Lord,” Jethro said, “who delivered you from the Egyptians and from Pharaoh, and who delivered the people from under the hand of the Egyptians.
(11) Now I know that the Lord is greater than all gods, yes, by the result of their very schemes against [the people].”
(12) And Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, brought a burnt offering and sacrifices for God; and Aaron came with all the elders of Israel to partake of the meal before God with Moses’ father-in-law.
(1-6) Jethro priest of Midian, Moses’ father-in-law … Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, took Zipporah … Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, brought Moses’ sons … He sent word to Moses, “I, your father-in-law Jethro …”: The phrase “Jethro, Moses' father-in-law” is repeated four times in this passage. This is not necessary merely to convey information – for that, just once would suffice – but to emphasize the importance of Moses’ and Jethro’s relationship.
We’ve already mentioned earlier [78] that Jethro considers himself Moses’ teacher. We cited the Midrash which told of Adam’s staff that stood in Jethro’s courtyard, after having been owned and used in the interim by Noah, Abraham, and Jacob – i.e., it is the tradition of humanity’s spiritual leadership, which passed through Jethro to Moses. Thus, the tradition harking back to the Patriarchs reached Moses through Jethro specifically, and the verse “Now Moses, tending the flock of his father-in-law Jethro…” (3:1) is understood to mean that Moses was the eldest of Jethro’s disciples, and Jethro therefore appointed Moses as a mentor to the others.
Jethro, then, is a thoroughly worthy and wise, spiritually advanced individual who sees Moses as his disciple. Now that his student has achieved outstanding success, as the leader of the Jewish people who has brought them out of Egypt, Jethro makes his way to Moses. He wishes better to understand the outcome of his student’s activities, and, possibly, to share with Moses some important suggestions and advice of his own.
There is also a Midrashic tradition that Jethro, Balaam and Job had all attained such an advanced level of spiritual development that the Torah could potentially have been given through them. The differences of approach between Moses and Jethro, to be discussed later, are thus essential for understanding why the Torah was nevertheless given only through Moses, and not through Jethro.
(2) So Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, took Zipporah, Moses’ wife, after she had been sent home: The Torah stated earlier that when God ordered Moses to leave Midian for Egypt, Moses took his wife and his sons with him (4:19). But nothing further is said about them until this verse. The Midrash believes that when Aaron went out to greet Moses in the wilderness, and met him at the mountain of God (4:27), he persuaded Moses at that time to not take his wife and children with him to Egypt. And Moses sent them back to Jethro before the Exodus from Egypt.
(3-4) And her two sons — of whom one was named Gershom, that is to say, “I have been a stranger in a foreign land”; and the other was named Eliezer, meaning, “The God of my father was my help, and He delivered me from the sword of Pharaoh”: Earlier, when Gershom was born (2:2), the Torah recorded his name, but only here does the Torah report the name of Moses’ second son. However, the Torah will make no further mention of either of Moses’ sons, who play no role whatsoever in future events – unlike Aaron’s sons, who will be mentioned very prominently again and again in their role as priests.
There are two possible explanations for this: (1) Moses’ sons were far from the people at critical moments in Jewish history: the Egyptian plagues, the death of the firstborns, the Exodus, the crossing of the Sea of Reeds, and the crises of the water shortage and the manna. They therefore could not forge an inextricable internal link between themselves and the Jewish nation, and could not play an important role in it. (2) After descending from Mount Sinai, Moses separated from his wife (as we shall explain in greater detail in our commentary on Num. 12:1 and Deut. 5:27). Because Moses did not properly participate in raising his children, they did not grow up to be leaders.
(5) Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, brought Moses’ sons and wife to him in the wilderness, where he was encamped at the mountain of God: Moses and the people are already stationed near Mount Sinai, in preparation for receiving the Torah.
(6) He sent word to Moses, “I, your father-in-law Jethro, am coming to you, with your wife and her two sons”: Jethro comes not only as a father-in-law, in recognition of the past, but also as a guarantee of the future: “I, Jethro, am coming to you with your sons.” Jethro will continue to play a significant role in Moses’ life.
(7) Moses went out to meet his father-in-law; he bowed low and kissed him; each asked after the other’s welfare, and they went into the tent: By going out to meet Jethro, Moses shows the entire nation that he acknowledges Jethro as one of his teachers.
(8) Moses then recounted to his father-in-law everything that the Lord had done to Pharaoh and to the Egyptians for Israel’s sake, all the hardships that had befallen them on the way, and how the Lord had delivered them: Above (v. 1) we read: “Jethro … heard all that God had done for Moses and for Israel His people, how the Lord had brought Israel out from Egypt.” Before coming to Moses, Jethro had heard the “positive” side of the Exodus story. Now, Moses tells Jethro also about the problems, the “negative” aspects: the punishments visited on Pharaoh and the Egyptians, and Moses’ difficulties with Israel.
(9-10) And Jethro rejoiced over all the kindness that the Lord had shown Israel when He delivered them from the Egyptians. “Blessed be the Lord,” Jethro said, “who delivered you from the Egyptians and from Pharaoh, and who delivered the people from under the hand of the Egyptians: Jethro continues to assimilate only the positive elements of the situation. This itself demonstrates Jethro’s lofty spiritual attainments. He focuses on life’s positive aspects, not on its problems.
(11) Now I know that the Lord is greater than all gods, yes, by the result of their very schemes against [the people]”: Jethro understands even the punishment of the Egyptians in an exclusively positive sense.
(12) And Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, brought a burnt offering and sacrifices for God: Bringing sacrifices is an expression of gratitude.
And Aaron came with all the elders of Israel to partake of the meal before God with Moses’ father-in-law: The Torah would have no reason to mention the simple partaking of a meal, unless it wanted to attach to it some special importance, or to make a particular point.
The emphasis here is on the Almighty as the “God of life.” Even the simple but life-affirming act of “eating a meal” is integral to the process of strengthening one’s connection with God, Who only wants us to live (and not to die). This concept, expressed repeatedly throughout the Tanakh, stands in stark contrast to the idea of the “inevitability of death when meeting with the Divine” that is so prevalent in the larger world.
We have examined this issue in detail in our commentary on the story of the Sacrifice of Isaac (Gen. ch. 22) [79].
17.3. Appointing Judicial Officers for the Nation (18:13-27)
(13) Next day, Moses sat as magistrate among the people, while the people stood about Moses from morning until evening.
(14) But when Moses’ father-in-law saw how much he had to do for the people, he said, “What is this thing that you are doing to the people? Why do you act alone, while all the people stand about you from morning until evening?”
(15) Moses replied to his father-in-law, “It is because the people come to me to inquire of God.
(16) When they have a dispute, it comes before me, and I decide between one person and another, and I make known the laws and teachings of God.”
(17) But Moses’ father-in-law said to him, “The thing you are doing is not right;
(18) you will surely wear yourself out, and these people as well. For the task is too heavy for you; you cannot do it alone.
(19) Now listen to me. I will give you counsel, and God be with you! You represent the people before God: you bring the disputes before God,
(20) and enjoin upon them the laws and the teachings, and make known to them the way they are to go and the practices they are to follow.
(21) You shall also seek out from among all the people capable men who fear God, trustworthy men who spurn ill-gotten gain. Set these over them as chiefs of thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens, and
(22) let them judge the people at all times. Have them bring every major dispute to you, but let them decide every minor dispute themselves. Make it easier for yourself by letting them share the burden with you.
(23) If you do this — and God so commands you — you will be able to bear up; and all these people too will go home unwearied.”
(24) Moses heeded his father-in-law and did just as he had said.
(25) Moses chose capable men out of all Israel, and appointed them heads over the people — chiefs of thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens;
(26) and they judged the people at all times: the difficult matters they would bring to Moses, and all the minor matters they would decide themselves.
(27) Then Moses bade his father-in-law farewell, and he went his way to his own land.
(13) Next day: There are varying opinions as to which particular day is meant. According to one of those, it is the day after Jethro’s arrival, which means that this incident of the creation of the judicial system occurred before the giving of the Torah.
But by another reading, this was the day after Moses came down from the mountain with the second tablets (see 34:1,29). Moses could not have been adjudicating cases for the people unless the laws of the Torah had already been given. According to this view, the order of these events as reported in the Torah is different from the order in which they actually occurred.
There is a well-known principle in Jewish tradition that “there is no earlier and later in the Torah.” That is, the sequence of the chapters in the Torah is not always chronologically determined. The Torah may disregard chronological order by reporting particular episodes in a different sequence from how they actually occurred, in order to ensure the integrity and consistency of the story or of the discussion of a particular topic.
Given that premise, we should see this chapter as designed to include everything that is important for understanding the interactions with Jethro. And we can thus conclude that, in essence (even if chronologically it was perhaps not so), Moses judges the people before the giving of the Torah, and Jethro also returns home before the giving of the Torah. We must understand the ideas of the Torah according to the logic of the narrative itself, regardless of chronology.
Moses judges the people even before the giving of the Torah, because the advancement of the people in matters of justice must precede the attainment of any level of holiness. One of the most important institutions of social justice is a correctly functioning judicial system (according to Jewish tradition, establishing such a system is one of the “Seven Noahide Commandments” that are obligatory not only for Jews, but for all of humanity).
The first order of business is to normalize human relations by achieving justice and honesty among all people in their daily affairs. Only after achieving those goals will it be possible for them to further advance toward holiness through a direct dialogue with God, which is the primary objective of the giving of the Torah.
The principle that justice must come first, and only then can there be holiness, finds expression in many places in the Torah. We first encountered it, most notably, in the story of Abraham, and here it applied to the Jewish people as a whole.
Moses sat as magistrate among the people, while the people stood about Moses from morning until evening: Having been raised in Pharaoh’s palace, Moses of course understands that a judicial system must be hierarchical. It is generally obvious that one individual cannot judge an entire nation, and must therefore have assistants who can address the more straightforward issues. Nonetheless, Moses initially gives each complainant the opportunity to turn to him directly.
(15-16) Moses replied to his father-in-law, “It is because the people come to me to inquire of God. When they have a dispute, it comes before me, and I decide between one person and another, and I make known the laws and teachings of God”: Moses does not say, “I make known who is right and who is wrong” or “I make known who is guilty and who is innocent.” Rather, he says, “and I make known the laws and teachings of God.” Moses wants to teach the people the ways of God as they apply to scrutinizing and resolving the real disputes and conflicts that occur in their own daily lives.
Moses tries to give each person the opportunity to request Divine teachings directly. The goal of his court is not to offer instantaneous solutions to specific legal problems, but to teach the people to welcome God as an active participant in their lives. Ideally, the Jewish judiciary should always be guided by this approach exclusively. But in actual practice it is virtually impossible to implement.
People are able understand and assimilate Divine principles and instructions much more effectively in the context of actual legal proceedings that involve them directly, as opposed to mere abstractions that have little bearing on their day-to-day lives. Moses wants to educate the people in the ways of the Almighty, rather than simply adjudicating their mundane quarrels and disputes.
(17) But Moses’ father-in-law said to him, “The thing you are doing is not right”: But Jethro advocates a different approach. For Jethro, achieving social justice is the highest priority. Moses judges alone, which is impractical, and therefore, from Jethro’s point of view, misguided. In Jethro's conception, the essence of the Torah, which means “a body of teachings,” consists in equitable relationships between people, and in establishing moral and ethical standards in society. Moses, however, sees the Torah as embracing a broader range of priorities and values.
(23) If you do this — and God so commands you — you will be able to bear up; and all these people too will go home unwearied: Jethro believes that maintaining peace within the Jewish nation is the first priority. Moses too considers such peace important, but he does not accord it first place. Moses ranks spiritual growth yet higher in importance than simply keeping the peace.
Because Jethro sees Moses’ relationship with the people as a kind of power structure, essentially, he proposes the principle of decentralized government, without which the system cannot work. But Moses believes that his primary task is to advance the people spiritually, and it is obviously better to learn spirituality from the masters directly than from their disciples. Both of these systems are found in real life, very often operating simultaneously. But getting them to work together in proper coordination is never easy.
(24) Moses heeded his father-in-law and did just as he had said: Moses waited for Jethro’s advice – advice that was all but self-evident! – and only then began to build a hierarchical judicial system. The purpose of the wait was to demonstrate to the people that this course of action was not ideal, and he was taking it only because he had no choice. Given that the ideal is unattainable, practically speaking, it would be wrong to stand one’s ground and insist on its observance, come what may. But it is vital that we at least start with the ideal as the basic premise, so that it may become a beacon for further advancement, and retain its place in the hierarchy of values.
No earlier example of this principle can be cited than that of Adam and Eve, who could not remain in the Garden of Eden for long and were necessarily expelled, but the image of the Garden of Eden has continued to accompany humanity ever since.
Likewise, the kingdom of David and his son Solomon could not long endure, but together they created for all time the image of a “proper” Jewish king.
Even a very brief encounter with the ideal (brief from the perspective of the span of human history) is often sufficient to establish it in the soul of the nation and of humanity. It remains as a firm foundation for the possibility of achieving that ideal someday once again, by virtue of our own efforts.
(25) Moses chose capable men out of all Israel, and appointed them heads over the people — chiefs of thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens: The system described here is presented to us as designed to confer judicial power. Instead of Moses, who judged alone, the collective authority to judge now lies with the hierarchical chiefs.
But legal proceedings in no way require dividing a people into groups of tens, hundreds, and thousands of people. For the military organization of society, however, that is in fact absolutely necessary, because military units must be all approximately equal in size to assure their most effective operation. Thus, dividing a society into groups of tens and hundreds, and appointing chiefs of tens and hundreds over them, is more suitable for conquering a country than for addressing purely judicial needs.
In this sense, we can suggest that it is not so much a judicial system that is being described here (that is, for the resolution of the conflicts that arise in society), as a system of governance and power. Because the Jewish people are being sent to conquer the Land of Canaan, they must be organized as an army. Moreover, whenever the term shofet, “a judge,” appears later in the Torah in similar contexts, the sense is more military-administrative than strictly legal (it is in this sense that the term is used also later in the book of Judges, including the name of the book itself, Shofetim, the plural of shofet, “a judge”).
Chiefs of thousands: And yet, there are no “chiefs of ten thousands” as we might have expected. But six hundred thousand adults – the size of the Israelite nation that left Egypt (12:37) – will require six hundred “chiefs of thousands,” a rather large number, which, at least in theory, should have a further hierarchical structure imposed upon it.
We note, however, that from this point onward in the Torah practically all census figures for the Jewish people are calculated and recorded per tribe, and not for the nation as a whole. This leads us to conclude that it was the prince of each tribe who managed the “chiefs of thousands” of his respective tribe, of which there would now be fifty per tribe, on average, a much more reasonable number in management terms.
Moreover, from the Torah’s other descriptions of the nation’s structure (at the beginning of the book of Numbers, for example) we see that within each tribe the social structure does not follow a scheme of simple numeric division into groups of hundreds and thousands, but is instead based on relationships of lineage. The tribe is divided into subtribes, each subtribe has its own leader, and is further divided into families, which are further divided into subfamilies and then into clans, and then into yet smaller, more closely related family groups. It is obvious that this organic structure, established by birth, does not correspond to numeric divisions and subdivisions, because in different tribes, families, and clans different numbers of children are born.
Thus we see that the natural lineal structure that should prevail in peacetime, as it corresponds to the organic organization of society, is replaced here by a paramilitary structure. In this structure, the number of units is paramount, while, at the lower level, tribal relations are less important. All that really matters is that each unit or group of units belongs to the same tribe, thus affording all the members of that tribe a sense of cohesion and unity (in that era the sense of unity at the tribal level was very close to how we today perceive unity at the national level).
Both of these systems, the lineal-organic and military-numeric, are somehow integrated within each tribe, since the prince of each tribe heads both of those hierarchies. This dual principle was the foundation of the dominant social structure.
Chiefs of ... hundreds, fifties, and tens: The divisions of the chiefs are in decimal increments (tens, hundreds, and thousands), except that there are “chiefs of fifties” as well. Perhaps it was done this way because the increment from tens directly to hundreds would be too steep – the “chiefs of tens” are chiefs over people, but the “chiefs of hundreds” are chiefs over other chiefs.
A hierarchical command structure is fundamentally different from one that is flat and direct; therefore, an intermediate position of “chiefs of fifties” is needed as a transitional stage between the chiefs of the tens and of the hundreds. Conversely, making the next higher transition, from hundreds to thousands, is easier psychologically, because the “chief of hundreds” has already learned to manage indirectly through the chiefs who are subordinate to him.
(26) And they judged the people at all times: the difficult matters they would bring to Moses, and all the minor matters they would decide themselves: A society should be self-governing to the greatest extent possible.
All of the above notwithstanding, the beginning of the book of Deuteronomy presents the hierarchical structure of governance (tens, fifties, hundreds, and thousands) in a completely different way. We will analyze the differences in our comments there.
(27) Then Moses bade his father-in-law farewell, and he went his way to his own land: The moment when Jethro actually “goes his way to his own land” is not specified here. Moreover, the Torah much later (Num. 10:29) records a conversation between Moses and Jethro (or possibly Jethro’s son). But if Jethro has now departed, how and when does that conversation take place?
As noted earlier, the sequence of events reported in the Torah is sometimes not chronological but associative. Thus, when the Torah says here that Jethro has departed, this can be understood as fundamentally accurate, even if not chronologically precise. That is, now that the matter of structuring the judicial system has been settled, Jethro has “in principle” already left to return to his country, even if physically he will still remain in the Jewish camp for some time.
The mention here of Jethro’s departure, before the giving of the Torah as described in the following chapter, would seem to indicate that Jethro does not enter into the Sinai covenant. This would mean that Jethro and his family do not establish for themselves a direct and independent channel of communication with God, and that they maintain that connection only indirectly, through their association with the Jewish people.
Chapter 18. The Giving of the Torah
18.1. Negotiating the Conditions for the Giving of the Torah (19:1-6)
(1) On the third new moon after the Israelites had gone forth from the land of Egypt, on that very day, they entered the wilderness of Sinai.
(2) Having journeyed from Rephidim, they entered the wilderness of Sinai and encamped in the wilderness. Israel encamped there in front of the mountain,
(3) and Moses went up to God. The Lord called to him from the mountain, saying, “Thus shall you say to the house of Jacob and declare to the children of Israel:
(4) ‘You have seen what I did to the Egyptians, how I bore you on eagles’ wings and brought you to Me.
(5) Now then, if you will obey Me faithfully and keep My covenant, you shall be My treasured possession among all the peoples. Indeed, all the earth is Mine,
(6) but you shall be to Me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.’ These are the words that you shall speak to the children of Israel.”
(1) On the third new moon after the Israelites had gone forth from the land of Egypt, on that very day, they entered the wilderness of Sinai: Since they left Egypt on the fifteenth day of the first month (first new moon) and then traveled the second half of the first month and the entire second month, until the first day of the third month; thus a month and a half passed since the Exodus.
(2) Having journeyed from Rephidim: The onset of the war with Amalek occurred in Rephidim (17:8). The Jews now journey from there to Mount Sinai. That is, only after emerging victorious from the war with Amalek can they become a nation in the full sense, and be capable of receiving the Torah, which they could not have before.
They entered the wilderness of Sinai and encamped in the wilderness. Israel encamped there in front of the mountain: While it is not apparent from the English translation, there is a stark contrast in the Hebrew between “They entered … and encamped” and “Israel encamped there,” which in the original Hebrew text are, respectively, vayachanu (plural) and vayichan (singular). Why this difference?
It means that the Jewish people embody, simultaneously, the plurality of their encampment in the wilderness, and the unity of their (very same) encampment opposite Mount Sinai.
This is symbolic of the nature of the nation who will soon receive and continue to preserve the Torah. They must be externally united, but at the same time also internally diverse, having a variety of points of view and approaches to life.
(3) And Moses went up to God: Here we are told that Moses has already ascended the mountain to God. But don’t we see clearly from verse 7 onward that Moses continues to interact with the people up until the time of the actual Revelation event, which occurs only in the next chapter?
We should therefore understand this verse to mean that Moses partially ascended and descended the mountain not just once, but even several times. Or we can take the ascent mentioned here as saying that Moses “went up to God” in a prophetic vision, without actually moving physically from his place.
The Lord called to him from the mountain, saying, “Thus shall you say to the house of Jacob and declare to the children of Israel: God is negotiating, as it were, with the people. Before concluding the actual agreement (i.e., the Covenant), it is necessary to discuss its basic principles and obtain the people’s consent. The Almighty communicates the basic principles of Jewish chosenness and mission, and Moses acts as the mediator in these negotiations.
Although at this preliminary stage, the acceptance of the Torah is described as free — later, at the giving of the Torah, there is also an element of coercion (see verse 17 and commentary below).
(4) You have seen what I did to the Egyptians, how I bore you on eagles’ wings and brought you to Me: This is a summary of the first stage of the Exodus, which established justice, opening the path to the second stage, advancement toward holiness.
I bore you on eagles’ wings: This metaphor expresses God’s protection of Israel against attack by their enemies. An eagle protects its chicks by placing them on her wings, because she flies higher than the predatory birds that are a threat to them.
(5) Now then, if you will obey Me faithfully and keep My covenant: There are two levels of relating to God: Obeying Him (in the normal course of life by adhering to His ideals and principles) and keeping the Covenant (observing God’s commandments and laws). Both of these are critical, but the ideals must always precede the commandments.
You shall be My treasured possession among all the peoples. Indeed, all the earth is Mine: God cares for all of humanity, and all people are important to Him. But precisely because He wants all of mankind to advance to a new, higher stage of development, God has appointed the Jews, His chosen people, as His “assistant” in that undertaking. The purpose of Jewish chosenness, i.e., the mission that the Jews received on Mount Sinai, is to advance humanity toward the Divine light.
(6) But you shall be to Me a kingdom of priests: A priest works not for himself, but for the people he serves, showing them their path to God. And likewise, the Jewish people exist not for themselves, but for humanity.
A kingdom of priests: The Jewish people can realize their mission only as an independent national entity, which is the “kingdom.” They can serve as the “priests of mankind” only as a complete and unified organism, and not as that kingdom’s individual representatives.
And a holy nation: The goal of the Jewish mission is realized not only in the elevated spirituality of individuals, but in achieving holiness among all the peoples of the world collectively as one unified “nation.” And since only a nation can advance a nation – individuals are not capable of that – the implementation of the universal Jewish mission is directly related to the existence of the Jews as an independent national and political entity.
Even when the Jewish people are scattered beyond the borders of their Land, they can still prepare for implementing the Jewish mission. But the actual realization of that mission is possible only from within the Land of Israel.
18.2. The People Prepare for the Giving of the Torah (19:7-15)
(7) Moses came and summoned the elders of the people and put before them all that the Lord had commanded him.
(8) All the people answered as one, saying, “All that the Lord has spoken we will do!” And Moses brought back the people’s words to the Lord.
(9) And the Lord said to Moses, “I will come to you in a thick cloud, in order that the people may hear when I speak with you and so trust you ever after.” Then Moses reported the people’s words to the Lord,
(10) and the Lord said to Moses, “Go to the people and warn them to stay pure today and tomorrow. Let them wash their clothes.
(11) Let them be ready for the third day; for on the third day the Lord will come down, in the sight of all the people, on Mount Sinai.
(12) You shall set bounds for the people round about, saying, ‘Beware of going up the mountain or touching the border of it. Whoever touches the mountain shall be put to death:
(13) no hand shall touch him, but he shall be either stoned or shot; beast or man, he shall not live.’ When the ram’s horn sounds a long blast, they may go up on the mountain.”
(14) Moses came down from the mountain to the people and warned the people to stay pure, and they washed their clothes.
(15) And he said to the people, “Be ready for the third day: do not go near a woman.”
(7) Moses came and summoned the elders of the people and put before them all that the Lord had commanded him: These new ideas now take the people completely by surprise. They thought they were just returning to their Land, but now it turns out that there is a special Divine doctrine involved, and also a unique mission for them to fulfill with respect to the rest of humanity.
Moses is afraid to make such a radical proposal to the entire nation, so he turns to the elders first to enlist their support.
(8) All the people answered as one, saying, “All that the Lord has spoken we will do!”: It is not the elders, however, who answer Moses, but all the people. In a situation that entails a drastic change in long-held ideas and beliefs, the common people show that they are more ready to go along with that than even the elite of the previous era were.
And yet, although their words appear to indicate full consent, they also have a condition that they wish to stipulate, as we shall see in the very next verse.
(9) And the Lord said to Moses, “I will come to you in a thick cloud”: The Divine light is so intense that it is impossible to perceive it directly, just as it is impossible to look directly at the sun without going blind. To receive that light, one needs a dimming filter. The thick cloud serves just this purpose.
In order that the people may hear when I speak with you: After the people are given the opportunity to hear directly what God will say to Moses, they will feel convinced that Moses really does receive his instructions from God.
And so trust you ever after: We can infer from the words “and so trust you ever after” that until now the Jews did not fully trust Moses. Thus, their affirmation “All that the Lord has spoken we will do!” (v. 8) should not be understood as a generalized promise (“Just tell us what to do, and we will do it, whatever it is”), but only in a restricted sense: “We will fulfill everything that the Lord says, but not what you say in His name, because it is impossible to know whether these are really God’s words, or just your own ideas.” For that reason, later God will have to address the entire nation directly.
The Jewish idea that the entire nation as one witnessed the Revelation is unique in the religious history of mankind. In Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and other religious systems, at first only one person receives the ultimate truth, or a divine revelation, and he then teaches that truth to everyone else. In contrast, the giving of the Torah was addressed directly to one and all, which means that the entire nation rose at that moment to the level of prophecy. This is a very important distinction between the tenets of Judaism and the conceptions of other world religions.
The Torah presents the revelation at Sinai in these terms, i.e., that God revealed Himself (and gave the Torah) to the entire nation as a whole, precisely because the Jews are a stubborn and incredulous people, and would not agree to receive the Torah through Moses. God chose as his emissaries to humanity not people who are ready to believe with no hesitation whatsoever, but a skeptical, stubborn, incredulous people.
(10) And the Lord said to Moses, Go to the people and warn them to stay pure today and tomorrow. Let them wash their clothes: The people need three days of preparation by which to approach God with measured steps; a hasty, unprepared ascent will only be destructive. The path to God must be gradual, so that a person who ascends to holiness always retains his full independence during the entire process.
(11) Let them be ready for the third day; for on the third day the Lord will come down, in the sight of all the people, on Mount Sinai: This will not be an individual event, but a Revelation for the entire nation.
(12) You shall set bounds for the people round about, saying, Beware of going up the mountain or touching the border of it. Whoever touches the mountain shall be put to death: In preparing for holiness a person must set boundaries for himself even in the matter of the goal of the holiness itself. At each stage he must limit his mystical desire to advance to the Almighty, until he is sufficiently prepared to take the next step.
(13) No hand shall touch him: There is a certain symbolism here. A person who violates God’s instructions by touching the mountain will be killed without anyone’s hand touching him.
But he shall be either stoned or shot; beast or man, he shall not live: The generation that left Egypt after a long period of slavery must be intimidated and threatened with severe punishment. Otherwise, they will not have the mental acuity to fully comprehend the gravity of what is happening.
When the ram’s horn sounds a long blast, they may go up on the mountain: After the preparations are complete, ascending the mountain will be allowed. This “preliminary restriction” is akin to the restriction that was placed on Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, forbidding them at first to partake of the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. In this sense, observing a three-day separation from Mount Sinai is, as it were, a correction of Adam's haste.
(14) Moses came down from the mountain to the people and warned the people to stay pure, and they washed their clothes: The washing of the clothes too was the fulfillment of a Divine instruction (v. 10).
(15) And he said to the people, “Be ready for the third day: do not go near a woman”: It is clear that the meaning of this restriction is that a person must renounce the passions and ordinary concerns of the material world when preparing for prophecy. But God’s instructions above (v. 10-13) placed no restriction on the people regarding physical contact with their wives. This verse gives the impression that this additional restriction was Moses’ own addition. The aspect of separation from one’s wife for communicating with God is especially important to Moses.
In our commentary to Numbers (ch. 12) we will discuss the matter of Moses’ separation from his wife in greater detail.
18.3. Moses Leads the People Out of the Camp toward God (19:16-25)
(16) On the third day, as morning dawned, there was thunder, and lightning, and a dense cloud upon the mountain, and a very loud blast of the horn; and all the people who were in the camp trembled.
(17) Moses led the people out of the camp toward God, and they took their places at the foot of the mountain.
(18) Now Mount Sinai was all in smoke, for the Lord had come down upon it in fire; the smoke rose like the smoke of a kiln, and the whole mountain trembled violently.
(19) The blare of the horn grew louder and louder. As Moses spoke, God answered him in thunder.
(20) The Lord came down upon Mount Sinai, on the top of the mountain, and the Lord called Moses to the top of the mountain and Moses went up.
(21) The Lord said to Moses, “Go down, warn the people not to break through to the Lord to gaze, lest many of them perish.
(22) The priests also, who come near the Lord, must stay pure, lest the Lord break out against them.”
(23) But Moses said to the Lord, “The people cannot come up to Mount Sinai, for You warned us saying, ‘Set bounds about the mountain and sanctify it.’ ”
(24) So the Lord said to him, “Go down, and come back together with Aaron; but let not the priests or the people break through to come up to the Lord, lest He break out against them.”
(25) And Moses went down to the people and spoke to them.
(16) On the third day: The third day of the people’s “separation” is the sixth day of the third month since the Exodus, or fifty days after leaving Egypt.
(16-19) On the third day, as morning dawned, there was thunder, and lightning, and a dense cloud upon the mountain, and a very loud blast of the horn … Now Mount Sinai was all in smoke … and the whole mountain trembled violently. The blare of the horn grew louder and louder: In the story of the prophet Elijah on Mount Horeb, which Tradition sees as reprising the giving of the Torah, the Almighty’s presence is described as follows:
“Come out,” He called, “and stand on the mountain before the Lord.” And lo, the Lord passed by.
There was a great and mighty wind, splitting mountains and shattering rocks by the power of the Lord; but the Lord was not in the wind.
After the wind — an earthquake; but the Lord was not in the earthquake. After the earthquake — fire; but the Lord was not in the fire.
And after the fire — a soft murmuring sound.
(1 Kings 19:11-12)
Based on this passage, the Midrash states that the words of the Revelation at Sinai, the Ten Commandments, were uttered in silence.
The heralds trumpet deafeningly before the arrival of the king, but when the king finally arrives, everything quiesces. And so it is here: The crescendo of the shofar creates a contrast between the din of the preparations and the “soft murmuring sound” of the actual Revelation.
(17) Moses led the people out of the camp toward God: In order to come close to God, one must leave the “camp.”
And they took their places at the foot of the mountain: A very literal rendering of be-tachtit ha-har would be “on the underside of the mountain.” The Midrash, which understands this as meaning that they were actually standing under the mountain, describes it this way: “The Almighty suspended the mountain precariously over them, and told them: If you accept the Torah, everything will be fine. But if not, Sinai will become your gravesite.” So the giving of the Torah at Sinai was achieved by coercion.
This midrash should not be taken literally, of course. This coercion was not a simple physical coercion. When such great Revelation occurred, the power of the Disclosure of Divinity was so strong and so obvious that all those present were deprived of their freedom of choice and accepted the Torah. It was simply impossible to deny the obvious.
Yet it was still coercion, and it was not ideal that giving of Torah was achieved by pressure. Our midrash continues, referring to the days of Mordechai and Esther, that after deliverance in the Purim story, the Jews once again accepted the Torah, but this time by their own free will.
This midrash intends to link the completion of the giving of the Torah with the completion of the writing of the Tanakh. The book of Esther is logically considered the last book of the Tanakh. It makes no mention of God, nor recounts miraculous events, for which reasons, inter alia, the book of Esther can be seen as a bridge to the post-Tanakh (post-biblical) era. Thus, the statement that “they again accepted the Torah in the days of Mordechai and Esther” really means “at the very end of the Tanakh era.” The idea here is that a full national acceptance of the Divine teachings, impossible at the level of the Five Books of the Moses (the Torah) alone, can happen only with the acceptance of the entire Tanakh.
Because the Torah from Heaven, bestowed at Sinai, is too far removed from the thinking and disposition of ordinary human beings, its acceptance at the national level is initially possible only through some measure of coercion. Naturally, coercion creates resistance, but among the Jewish people this was countered by their willingness to accept the Torah in the manner originally expressed by the Patriarchs.
But the Torah is intended not only for the Jews, but for all mankind, and the peoples of the world did not give this initial consent. The Torah’s supernal and unapproachable nature, and the resistance to its teachings, were obstacles to its adoption.
However, as the Torah progressed through Jewish history, the Tanakh was created, integrating the heavenly Revelation with the flow of human history here on earth. That fusion of the Divine and the human was much easier to accept. At that point, the Jews could accept even such a Torah without coercion, which is the reason for its full adoption “in the days of Mordechai and Esther.”
Following their example, the nations of the world too could then accept the Tanakh, notwithstanding that they could not do so originally when the Torah was first given. This is what actually happened in the subsequent history of mankind.
(18) Now Mount Sinai was all in smoke, for the Lord had come down upon it in fire: At the giving of the Torah, water (cloud), which symbolizes Chesed (“mercy”) and fire, symbolizing Gevurah (“severity, judgment”) were united. The combination of disparate elements, water and fire, is symbolic of the unification of Chesed and Gevurah as the Torah’s primary ethical objective. This concept, which originated with Abraham [80], now finds its expression in the giving of the Torah.
(19) The blare of the horn grew louder and louder: The Midrash explains: “The loudness gradually increased, because, as a person’s perception develops, he can hear more and more.”
As Moses spoke, God answered him in thunder: The literal translation is “God answered him in a voice.” According to the Midrash, God answered Moses by strengthening Moses’ own voice.
(20-21) The Lord came down upon Mount Sinai, on the top of the mountain, and the Lord called Moses to the top of the mountain and Moses went up. The Lord said to Moses, “Go down, warn the people”: All this is still only the preparation for the Revelation. Although the whole nation is now experiencing a state of prophecy, they must maintain distance, continuing to be themselves as distinct human entities, not succumbing to the temptation to become one with Divinity.
Not to break through to the Lord to gaze, lest many of them perish: The desire to “see God” is destructive.
(22) The priests also, who come near the Lord, must stay pure, lest the Lord break out against them: The “priests” here are the firstborns. Before the incident of the golden calf, it was they who served as priests.
(23) But Moses said to the Lord, “The people cannot come up to Mount Sinai, for You warned us saying, ‘Set bounds about the mountain and sanctify it.’ ”: Moses believes that the people have accepted the prohibition.
(24) So the Lord said to him, “Go down, and come back together with Aaron; but let not the priests or the people break through to come up to the Lord, lest He break out against them.”: The Almighty expresses doubt that Moses is correct, and says that the warning must be repeated.
Go down, and come back together with Aaron: This is a clarification of earlier instructions. During the actual giving of the Torah Moses must remain below, together with the people, in order to receive the Torah along with them. But after that, Moses and Aaron are allowed to ascend.
From the Torah’s account which follows, however, we know that after the giving of the Torah, only Moses ascended the mountain, while Aaron remained below with the people. Perhaps this exactly what led to the incident of the golden calf.
But let not the priests or the people break through to come up to the Lord, lest He break out against them: Moses and Aaron are able to apprehend the Almighty’s presence on the mountain, but the firstborns and all the rest of the people cannot, which means it will only be destructive for them.
(25) And Moses went down to the people and spoke to them: He warned them yet again.
18.4. The Special Significance of the Ten Commandments
The Ten Commandments clearly occupy a unique place in the Torah, for the following reasons.
· Although the Jews received the Torah as a whole indirectly through Moses, the Ten Commandments were the revelation that the entire people received directly from the Almighty.
o There are varying opinions in the Midrash as to which part of the Ten Commandments the entire nation received directly.
According to one interpretation, all of the Ten Commandments were communicated directly by God to the people.
A second opinion states that this applies to the first two commandments exclusively (this view is based on the fact that in the first two commandments God speaks in the first person, which is understood as direct Revelation, whereas the third and following commandments refer to God in the third person).
A third opinion believes that the entire nation heard only the very first word Anochi, “I,” or perhaps even just the initial letter aleph of this word. All the rest they received through Moses.
However, a simple reading of the text of the Torah would seem to indicate that the entire Ten Commandments were received by the people directly from God.
· Besides being communicated orally, the Ten Commandments were also written by the Almighty Himself onto two stone tablets.
o The Torah as a whole was recorded in writing by Moses, but the Ten Commandments were written directly by God.
· The daily service in the Temple began each morning with the reading of the Shema and the Ten Commandments (Mishnah Tamid 5:1).
o This daily reading of the Ten Commandments was not, however, incorporated into the standardized Jewish liturgy. The apparent reason is that precisely because of their supreme importance, there was a danger that placing special emphasis on the Ten Commandments could lead to neglect of the Torah’s other commandments (see below).
· The cantillation system that is used for the text of the Ten Commandments is different from that of the rest of the Torah (see below).
The purpose of the Ten Commandments is not to teach the Jews the foundations of morality. Even before receiving the Ten Commandments the Jews were well aware that it was forbidden to kill, to commit adultery, to steal, and so on (the ethical systems of other civilizations have similar precepts).
Rather, the meaning of the Ten Commandments is the making of a covenant with God based on those selfsame principles.
The Torah itself (34:28) calls the Ten Commandments aseret ha-dibrot, “the ten sayings” (not “commandments”). This creates a certain parallel with the Ten Utterances by which God created the world (Gen. Ch. 1; Mishnah Avot 5:1). Thus, the making of the Sinai covenant with the Jewish people is comparable in its importance to the creation of the entire universe.
Even so, there are two opposing points of view in classical Jewish literature on the status of the Ten Commandments: (1). The Ten Commandments occupy a uniquely elevated position in the Torah (we have already explained the rationale for this position). (2). The Ten Commandments, and the level of their Revelation, are not a whit higher nor lower than all the rest of the Torah. Any other verse in the Torah is exactly equal in value and in weight to the Ten Commandments.
In light of these two opposite viewpoints, local customs vary concerning the reading of the Ten Commandments in the synagogue (within the regular annual cycle of Torah readings, and also on the festival of Shavuot).
In deference to the first of the two opinions just mentioned, it is customary in many communities to stand when the Ten Commandments are read publicly from the Torah, in recognition of their special status (notwithstanding that, in general, there is no requirement to stand during the reading of the Torah).
But according to the second opinion above, one should conduct himself during the public readings of the Ten Commandments exactly the same as he would during any other Torah reading. In particular, one need not – indeed should not – rise for the reading of the Ten Commandments, so as not to give the impression that the Ten Commandments are in any way more important than the rest of the Torah.
The second of those two viewpoints, which emphasizes that all the words of the Torah have equal weight, wants to disabuse us of any notion that the Ten Commandments are the main attraction, and the rest of the Torah is less important.
The approach that stresses the singularity of the Ten Commandments is often found in Christianity, in its popular, prosaic form, at least. But it actually arose much earlier.
The Talmud (Sanhedrin 99b) relates that King Manasseh, as early as the seventh century BCE, questioned the relevance of the verse “and Lotan’s sister was Timna” (Gen. 36:22) and other verses of similar character. That is, Manasseh advocated an approach to the Torah text that seeks to distinguish between passages that are pivotal and those that are “merely tangentially informational.” To prevent such an approach to the Torah from gaining traction among the population, and to affirm the sanctity and divinity of all parts of the Torah without exception, the Sages took the emphatic position that the entire Torah is everywhere exactly uniform in its level of Revelation, and that, in particular, the Ten Commandments are on even footing with the rest of the Torah text.
It is crucial that we learn to integrate both of these approaches. We must understand that the entire Torah is equally sacred, and that no part of the Torah text is by any measure extraneous, even those verses that would seem, at first glance, ancillary. We must be aware of the importance of every letter and every word of the Torah (it is not by mere happenstance that the Sages attribute the neglect of individual verses of the Torah to King Manasseh, a confirmed and renowned idolater).
But at the same time, we must also not overlook that each passage of the Torah has its own unique meaning, and its special influence that it exerts on the world. It is here that the difference between passages comes to the fore. It is obvious that the influence of the Ten Commandments as the central institutions of the Torah is enormous, in light of their unquestionable significance for all of Western civilization.
18.5. The Text of the Ten Commandments (20:1-14)
[In the following English translation, the angle brackets <...> indicate the division of the text into the Ten Commandments according to Jewish tradition.]
(1) God spoke all these words, saying:
<1>
(2) I the Lord am your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt, the house of bondage:
<2>
(3) You shall have no other gods besides Me.
(4) You shall not make for yourself a sculptured image, or any likeness of what is in the heavens above, or on the earth below, or in the waters under the earth.
(5) You shall not bow down to them or serve them. For I the Lord your God am an impassioned God, visiting the guilt of the parents upon the children, upon the third and upon the fourth generations of those who reject Me,
(6) but showing kindness to the thousandth generation of those who love Me and keep My commandments.
<3>
(7) You shall not swear falsely by the name of the Lord your God; for the Lord will not clear one who swears falsely by His name.
<4>
(8) Remember the Sabbath day and keep it holy.
(9) Six days you shall labor and do all your work,
(10) but the seventh day is a Sabbath of the Lord your God: you shall not do any work — you, your son or daughter, your male or female slave, or your cattle, or the stranger who is within your settlements.
(11) For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth and sea, and all that is in them, and He rested on the seventh day; therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and hallowed it.
<5>
(12) Honor your father and your mother, that you may long endure on the land that the Lord your God is assigning to you.
<6>
(13) You shall not murder.
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You shall not commit adultery.
<8>
You shall not steal.
<9>
You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.
<10>
(14) You shall not covet your neighbor’s house: you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, or his male or female slave, or his ox or his ass, or anything that is your neighbor’s.
(1) God spoke all these words, saying: The Ten Commandments appear twice in the Torah: here, in the book of Exodus, and again in Deuteronomy (5:6 ff.). The two texts differ in certain details. We will examine these differences in our commentary on Deuteronomy.
The generally accepted versification of the text of the Ten Commandments into thirteen verses (2-14) does not correspond, quite obviously, to the division of the text into ten commandments. This is because the longer commandments consist of several verses each, while, conversely, several of the shortest commandments (6, 7 and 8) are grouped together in a single verse.
It is important to note that the text of the Ten Commandments differs from the rest of the Torah also with respect to its cantillation symbols (and thus the melody used to chant them in public readings).
Unlike the rest of the Torah, in which one and the same cantillation system is consistently applied, the Ten Commandments employ two alternate systems of cantillation, known as the ta’am ha-tachton (the “lower cantillation”) and the ta’am ha-elyon (the “upper cantillation”). These two cantillation systems are used, respectively, for reading of the Ten Commandments within the normal weekly Torah-reading cycle, and for reading them on the festival of Shavuot (which commemorates the giving of the Torah).
Now, both of those systems include sof pasuq, “end of verse,” as one of the cantillation symbols, which in turn determines where one verse ends and the next one begins. Thus, one of the important differences between the Ten Commandments’ two cantillation systems is that the “lower cantillation” follows the accepted versification of the text, which, as already mentioned, does not divide the text evenly into ten commandments. But the “upper cantillation,” on the other hand, does in fact divide the text into exactly ten verses, such that each commandment occupies a single verse, and each verse contains a single commandment.
Because of that dichotomy, the numbering of the verses also differs between the two systems, and that difference continues until the end of the chapter. This is why the numbering of the verses in certain translations does not coincide with the versification of the Hebrew text, even when a given printed edition of the Torah presents those two texts of the Ten Commandments – the original Hebrew, and the given translation – in parallel.
Because the Ten Commandments are explained in great detail in a large number of available works, including English-language publications [81], our commentary that follows will note only the most essential points.
(2) I the Lord am your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt, the house of bondage: It was less than obvious to the Jewish people that it was God Who had brought them out of Egypt. Perhaps Moses himself had accomplished that, or other favorable circumstances had allowed it to happen. The first of the Ten Commandments therefore teaches us to see and believe that God intervenes in the course of history.
The first of the Ten Commandments also incorporates the ideal of freedom, while condemning the institution of slavery. Without freedom, both individual and national, spiritual progress is impossible.
(4-5) You shall not make for yourself a sculptured image, or any likeness … You shall not bow down to them or serve them: It is forbidden to create images for worship. But creating visual art for its own sake is not prohibited.
For I the Lord your God am an impassioned God: The more literal translation is “a jealous God.” The divine quality of “jealousy,” which is manifested with respect to the prohibition of idolatry, means that God does not tolerate religious syncretism (widely accepted in the Ancient World), and requires humans to worship only Him, the Almighty.
Nachmanides points out that God’s “jealousy” applies only to the people of Israel. Although idolatry is forbidden to all humankind (as one of the Seven Noahide Laws that are mandatory for Jews and non-Jews alike), the Almighty judges the Jewish people for transgressing that prohibition far more strictly, because it is the Jewish mission to transmit the Divine light to the rest of humanity.
Visiting the guilt of the parents upon the children, upon the third and upon the fourth generations of those who reject Me: Literally, “of those who hate me.” However, this refers not to people who only harbor a “psychological feeling of hatred” toward God, but to those who actualize that hatred by putting it into practice.
As for visiting the sin of a father’s hatred upon his children, the Talmud explains: If the father hates the Almighty, and his son continues in the same path (he too hates God), then the son is punished for his own misdeeds and also for those of his father. But if the son does not share in his father’s hatred, and does not perpetuate that evil, then none of the father’s guilt will be visited upon him.
<2-3> (6-7) But showing kindness to the thousandth generation of those who love Me … You shall not swear falsely by the name of the Lord your God; for the Lord will not clear one who swears falsely by His name: The first two commandments are formulated in the first person (“I,” “me”), but from the third commandment onward, in the third person (“You shall not swear falsely by the name of the Lord your God”).
Some commentators explain this to mean that the Almighty spoke only the first two commandments directly to the entire people. This is because the people had no more strength to listen (see below), and they therefore received the eight subsequent commandments indirectly from God, as retold to them by Moses.
But other commentators assert that the Ten Commandments’ introductory wording “God spoke all these words, saying” indicates that the people heard all Ten Commandments directly from God.
A third possibility is that first the people heard God Himself speak all the Ten Commandments, but they understood only the first two, and Moses then had to repeat the remaining commandments in language comprehensible to them.
(8) Remember the Sabbath day: In the other version of the Ten Commandments (when they are repeated in Deuteronomy), this Sabbath commandment is worded not as “Remember the Sabbath day,” but as “Observe the Sabbath day” (Deut. 5:12). Remembering the Shabbat and observing it are two different but complimentary aspects of this commandment.
One remembers the Sabbath by rejoicing on it, by recognizing the Seventh Day as special and making it a celebration, by lighting the Sabbath candles (before sunset on Friday), and by honoring the Sabbath with meals that include the best food and drink one can afford.
Observing the Sabbath means not violating the Sabbath – that is, refraining from all manner of constructive labor and work that is prohibited on this day.
(10) But the seventh day is a Sabbath of the Lord your God: you shall not do any work: Precisely what “work” is forbidden on the Sabbath is not here specified. But kindling fire (35:3) and engaging in agricultural activity (34:21) are in fact later specifically prohibited. Also, the instructions given earlier (16:23,29) for collecting the manna indicate a ban on carrying items in a public domain, cooking, and walking beyond the limits of one’s immediate vicinity on Shabbat.
Later Jewish tradition, basing itself on the Oral Law received by Moses from God, expands on the above short list with a more general ban on thirty-nine general categories of constructive activity that are forbidden on Shabbat, representing all the fundamental categories of restructuring the world in the service of human needs (see Mishnah Shabbat 7:2).
(11) For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth and sea, and all that is in them, and He rested on the seventh day: Here we see that the cosmic foundation of the Shabbat is the creation of the world, and that it is therefore relevant to all of humanity. But in the Ten Commandments of Deuteronomy the rationale given for the Shabbat is social: “Remember that you were a slave in the land of Egypt and the Lord your God freed you from there with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm; therefore the Lord your God has commanded you to observe the Sabbath day” (5:15). All of the latter obviously relates only to the Jews, whom God redeemed from Egyptian bondage. Thus, the command here in Exodus to remember the Sabbath applies to all of humanity, but Deuteronomy’s commandment to observe the Sabbath (to abide by its prohibitions) applies only to Jews.
(12) Honor your father and your mother, that you may long endure on the land that the Lord your God is assigning to you: Honoring one’s parents is one of the few Torah commandments for which the reward is explicitly stated. We will examine this issue more closely in our commentary on Deuteronomy (22:6).
(13) You shall not murder: In Hebrew (as in most other languages, including English) there are two distinct verbs for the concept of taking a life: R‑TZ‑CH (“to murder,” i.e., to kill with criminal intent) and H‑R‑G (“to kill,” i.e., killing in general, irrespective of circumstances).
This sixth commandment of the ten is phrased as lo tirtzach, “You shall not murder,” and not as lo taharog, “You shall not kill.” Thus, this commandment does not prohibit killing an enemy in a situation of self-defense, whether individual or national (i.e., in war).
You shall not commit adultery: Lo tin’af. Strictly, ni’uf in Hebrew means adultery – a married woman engaging in sexual relations with any man other than her husband. In the broader context, however, this seventh commandment encompasses any of the most serious sexual relationships, especially those between close family members (i.e., incest).
18.6. The People Appeal to Moses to Mediate Between Them and God (20:15-18)
(15) All the people witnessed the thunder and lightning, the blare of the horn and the mountain smoking; and when the people saw it, they fell back and stood at a distance.
(16) “You speak to us,” they said to Moses, “and we will obey; but let not God speak to us, lest we die.”
(17) Moses answered the people, “Be not afraid; for God has come only in order to test you, and in order that the fear of Him may be ever with you, so that you do not go astray.”
(18) So the people remained at a distance, while Moses approached the thick cloud where God was.
(15) As noted earlier, a discrepancy arises in some printed editions of the Torah in the numbering of the verses in this passage through the end of the chapter, because of differences in versification (dividing the text into verses) between alternate cantillation systems in use for the Ten Commandments. In this book, however, for the reader’s convenience and for the sake of clarity we consistently follow the versification of the “lower cantillation” – in the Hebrew original, the English translation, and our commentary.
(15) The people saw it, they fell back and stood at a distance: Instead of “they fell back,” an alternate translation of va-yanu’u is “they trembled.” The Revelation has not caused jubilation among the people. Quite the contrary, the people are afraid, and ask that an intermediary be appointed. The people are not yet ready to realize their mission as “a kingdom of priests.” Apparently, this is a consequence of God’s having “rushed” to bring the Jews out of slavery ahead of time [82].
(16) “You speak to us,” they said to Moses, “and we will obey; but let not God speak to us, lest we die”: When God communicates with a human being, it is natural for that person to experience a premonition of death.
We find a clear example of this when an angel of God appeared to Manoah and his wife, Samson’s parents. “Manoah said to his wife, ‘We shall surely die, for we have seen a divine being.’ ” (Jud. 13:22). The alluring sweetness of the higher worlds attracts a person and draws him into himself. Mysticism is inseparable from the thirst for self-destruction, and for dissolution in the Absolute.
But the Torah and Jewish mysticism are “the teachings of life,” not death [83]. From the Jewish viewpoint, all of human history is preparation for the possibility of “seeing God and remaining alive.” This Messianic level of contact with God has now been revealed to the people during the giving of the Torah at Sinai, but they are not yet ready for it. They therefore ask Moses to serve as mediator between them and God.
(17) For God has come only in order to test you, and in order that the fear of Him may be ever with you, so that you do not go astray: As we have explained previously, the Hebrew root N‑S‑H can mean either to test, or to elevate (lit., to raise as a banner). In this verse too, an alternate translation is “For God has come only in order to elevate you.”
When a person achieves a new level of spiritual elevation, his understanding of the greatness of the Almighty increases, with the result that his awe of God and his fear of doing wrong also increase. This is the meaning of our verse: “For God has come only in order to elevate you, and in order that the fear of Him may be ever with you, so that you do not go astray” (lit., “so that you will not sin”).
(18) Moses approached the thick cloud where God was: Divinity is always obscured in haze.
18.7. The Conclusion of the Revelation at Sinai (20:19-23)
(19) The Lord said to Moses: Thus shall you say to the Israelites: You yourselves saw that I spoke to you from the very heavens:
(20) With Me, therefore, you shall not make any gods of silver, nor shall you make for yourselves any gods of gold.
(21) Make for Me an altar of earth and sacrifice on it your burnt offerings and your sacrifices of well-being, your sheep and your oxen; in every place where I cause My name to be mentioned I will come to you and bless you.
(22) And if you make for Me an altar of stones, do not build it of hewn stones; for by wielding your tool upon them you have profaned them.
(23) Do not ascend My altar by steps, that your nakedness may not be exposed upon it.
(19) The Lord said to Moses: As the giving of the Torah is now essentially complete, God gives the people additional commandments designed to preserve the Torah among the Jewish people. These include a clarification of the prohibition of idolatry, the need to establish an organized religious cult (commandments concerning the altar), and maintaining a sense of modesty.
Thus shall you say to the Israelites: You yourselves saw that I spoke to you from the very heavens: It is the transcendental nature of the gift of the Torah that is being emphasized here. The Torah comes “from the very heavens.” It is not inherent in ordinary life on earth.
Divinity manifests itself in our world through two channels: transcendentally, through the Torah given from Sinai, and immanently, through nature and the natural course of events and our inner religious intuition. It is important to see both of these manifestations of God in the world, and to maintain a balance in our perception of these two paths.
(20) With Me, therefore, you shall not make any gods of silver: In this verse, the etnachta (a primary cantillation symbol that divides the verse into two distinct, albeit related, parts) is on the word itti, “Me.” In English, this would be equivalent to putting a semicolon after the words “With Me, therefore, you shall not make.” In other words, this is a prohibition “to place something along with Him” – “to attach something else to the Almighty.”
When other religions do so, i.e., they attach some other image to God, as participating together with Him in His Divinity, Judaism calls this Shituf, “companionism” (christianity, which attaches to God the image of Jesus, is a classic example of a religion based on Shituf).
This prohibition of Shituf, “With Me, therefore, you shall not make,” applies only to Jews – Shituf is not forbidden for non-Jews (for them it is a form of monotheism). The nations of the world are required to observe only the prohibition of absolute idolatry; Shituf is not for them a violation of that prohibition. But the Torah puts more stringent demands on the Jews than on other nations, and Shituf is therefore forbidden to Jews. For them it is fully equivalent to idolatry.
(20) Any gods of silver, nor shall you make for yourselves any gods of gold: Silver and gold represent the material and the spiritual (moral), respectively. The Torah here prohibits deification of material success, as well as deification of human creative spiritual success. Because Divinity is transcendental (“I spoke to you from the very heavens”), nothing earthly – neither images (Shituf), nor any material or spiritual-moral values (“silver and gold”) – is permitted to be identified with Him.
(21) Make for Me an altar: It is important to note that the commandment of constructing an altar was given immediately after the giving of the Torah. It is not, as sometimes alleged, a later reaction to the creation of the golden calf, supposedly needed in order to channel the thirst for sacrifice in a positive direction.
Your sacrifices of well-being: The various types of sacrifices will be discussed in more detail in the opening passages of the book of Leviticus.
Make for Me an altar of earth: The altar was hollow, made of wood, and encased in copper. Its verticals were filled with earth (see 27:1-8).
We note the contrast here. God spoke from Heaven, in a transcendental Revelation. And in response, humans construct an altar from earth, i.e., they transform the world according to Divine ideals.
(22) And if you make for Me an altar of stones, do not build it of hewn stones: Our natural life, and not our “hewn” life, are to become the altar of the Almighty.
For by wielding your tool upon them you have profaned them: The literal meaning of charbecha is “your sword.” Although metal (and iron in particular) was in ancient times used to make tools, and for other peaceful and constructive purposes, nonetheless one of its primary applications was weaponry. The Torah here prohibits using metal in the making of the altar, because religious life cannot be built on the basis of violence.
(23) Do not ascend My altar by steps: Instead of stairs, you must ascend the altar with the aid of a gently sloping ramp. Like a natural human gait, spiritual progress occurs gradually.
That your nakedness may not be exposed upon it: The simple meaning is that even in the service of the Almighty, the laws of modesty must always remain a priority. But figuratively: If instead of ascending the altar gradually you try to jump abruptly from one level of spirituality to the next, you are in danger of “exposing your nakedness,” that is, it will become apparent to all that you are not yet ready to ascend to that level.
Chapter 19. Foundations of Jewish Jurisprudence
19.1. Civil and Criminal Law as a Religious System
The previous portion, Yitro, presented the general principles of the covenant with God. This included, most prominently, the Ten Commandments, and the special status of the Jewish people as a “kingdom of priests” for all of humanity. Portion Yitro was thus the “Moses” portion – the inner essence of the covenant.
In this portion now beginning, whose name is Mishpatim, “Rules,” the same covenant will now be elaborated in detail, showing how the general principles are to be applied in actual practice; that is, what they look like when applied to daily life. In that sense, then, this portion is the “Aaron” portion.
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Legislation, both civil and criminal, is an essential part of the teachings of the Torah. In Judaism there is no division into secular and religious, worldly and spiritual. Absolutely everything – social laws, economic relations, civil and criminal codes – belongs to the field of religion, and everything is part of one’s connection with God. The laws exist not only to normalize life within human society, but to uphold the covenant with God.
Both civil and criminal law are covered primarily in the Mishpatim portion, but also in other portions of the Torah. These commandments and laws are not systematized by topic, but are presented in their various portions associatively. However, to clarify the halachah it is necessary to connect them together. Such a systematization was an essential part of the work of the Talmud and codifiers of the halachah. Many commentaries on the Torah put a special emphasis on clarifying the relationship between the Torah text and the halachah.
We will not, however, discuss the halachic application of the laws of the Torah. The purpose of our commentary is to draw philosophical conclusions from the text of the Torah, not to subject it to legislative or halachic analysis. We therefore strive to examine each passage in the context of its overall theme, in order to arrive at an understanding of the lesson that it is coming to teach us.
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We have already noted that many of the Torah’s laws in the social domain accord with the legal system that was adopted in the ancient Near East, primarily the Code of Hammurabi [84]. The Torah amends and corrects that system, while not requiring immediate transition to the ideal.
Another point related to this is that – to cite this case of slavery as a representative example – the Torah speaks here not of a society so well organized that slavery will not exist at all, but about correcting and improving life’s realities such as they are. Therefore, as both humanity in general and the Jewish people in particular advanced, both culturally and spiritually, the Torah sages later declared some of these laws to be no longer applicable.
This does not mean that these laws have essentially lost all their meaning. Studying these laws in order to understand the ideas they embody will always remain decisively important. But they are no longer applicable in practice, because of humanity’s advancement in solving the problems that these laws were originally meant to address.
19.2. Laws Concerning Slavery (21:1-11)
(1) These are the rules that you shall set before them:
(2) When you acquire a Hebrew slave, he shall serve six years; in the seventh year he shall go free, without payment.
(3) If he came single, he shall leave single; if he had a wife, his wife shall leave with him.
(4) If his master gave him a wife, and she has borne him children, the wife and her children shall belong to the master, and he shall leave alone.
(5) But if the slave declares, “I love my master, and my wife and children: I do not wish to go free,”
(6) his master shall take him before God. He shall be brought to the door or the doorpost, and his master shall pierce his ear with an awl; and he shall then remain his slave for life.
(7) When a man sells his daughter as a slave, she shall not be freed as male slaves are.
(8) If she proves to be displeasing to her master, who designated her for himself, he must let her be redeemed; he shall not have the right to sell her to outsiders, since he broke faith with her.
(9) And if he designated her for his son, he shall deal with her as is the practice with free maidens.
(10) If he marries another, he must not withhold from this one her food, her clothing, or her conjugal rights.
(11) If he fails her in these three ways, she shall go free, without payment.
(1) These are the rules: Detailing the laws goes in descending order of the overall seriousness of the situation. First, laws governing slavery, then murder (vv. 21:12-14), then causing physical harm to another person (21:25-36), and then damage to property (21:37-22:14). Thus, Torah considers that the worst thing that can ever happen to a person is to become a slave. To die is less frightening, followed by physical harm, robbery, and other forms of thievery.
That you shall set before them: The practical implementation of the laws of the Torah is largely the prerogative of the people, albeit with the Torah sages acting on their behalf. Therefore, after the Jews have received the general principles “in their final form from heaven” in the Yitro portion, the details of those laws are “set before them” here in the Mishpatim portion.
(2) When you acquire a Hebrew slave: The Torah’s coverage of those details begins at the very bottom of the social ladder. A human being is being sold as a slave in order to pay for a theft he has committed, or because poverty forces a father to sell his minor daughter as a maidservant, in order that he might save her, at least, from the ravages of poverty. In both cases, the intent of the Torah’s laws is not to upend the entire situation itself, but to set acceptable boundaries, so that the basic rights of the slave or maidservant are protected.
The Torah seeks to correct reality not by imposing edicts that attempt to radically alter human behavior immediately, but, instead, through practical steps for improving life under prevailing conditions, until the natural historical process leads to more ideal human relationships. Once humanity has surmounted these obstacles (slavery, in this case), the original laws of the Torah concerning them no longer apply in any literal sense. However, they nonetheless remain important for our understanding of how the Torah views the general framework of life.
He shall serve six years; in the seventh year he shall go free, without payment: The discussion of the laws of slavery does not begin with the rules for acquiring a slave, as we would reasonably expect from a legal code, but with limits on the duration of slavery, and the right of the slave to go free when it finally ends. Ultimately, the objective of the Torah is not to create a legal code for its own sake, but to establish the moral foundations of everyday life.
It is useful to note that the Ten Commandments, in the previous portion, Yitro, began with God as the supreme architect of personal freedom: “I the Lord am your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt, the house of bondage” (20:2), while the concrete laws of this Mishpatim portion begin with the topic of slavery – the very antithesis of personal freedom.
This is the difference between an approach based on ideals (Moses) and an approach based on reality (Aaron). At the time of the giving of the Torah, slavery was a fact of human existence and the actual makeup of the world. It would only have been counterproductive to try to pretend that the problem did not exist, or to attempt to abolish slavery before humanity had advanced on its own to the point of being ready for that. The Torah can condemn and limit slavery, but it is up to humans to overcome and abolish it through their own efforts.
By Torah law, a Jew can be sold into slavery only for stealing (selling a Jew into slavery simply in order to pay off his ordinary debts is forbidden by the Torah [85]). Thus, buying a Jewish slave means buying a convicted criminal – a situation that obviously comes with its own set of problems. Many people today will expressly avoid hiring an employee or a day-laborer with a criminal history, even if he has already repented and completely redeemed himself. But the man who purchases a slave purchases a “thief for correction.” He brings him into his home, and on top if it all also assumes responsibility for his care.
However, the Torah entrusts society with the re-education of such a thief. Rather than sitting in prison, he will now remain among normal people. He will live with a family who will teach him to become a responsible and respectable member of society.
The purchaser of this thief-slave has paid a handsome price for him (which has gone to compensate the victim of the crime), in exchange for which he has now gotten himself an employee. Only a strong and wealthy man could afford such a purchase – a man standing firmly on his feet, burdened with the demands of a sizeable and demanding homestead, and badly in need of working hands. Thus, an unprincipled Jew has fallen into the right place – an environment where a strong personality dominates.
(3) If he came single, he shall leave single; if he had a wife, his wife shall leave with him: One who acquires a Jewish slave must also assume the responsibility of caring for his wife and children for the duration of the indenture. But when the slave goes free, his wife leaves with him, thus relieving the owner of that obligation.
(4) If his master gave him a wife, and she has borne him children, the wife and her children shall belong to the master, and he shall leave alone: The owner could marry the Jewish slave even to a non-Jewish slave girl (notwithstanding that such a marriage is forbidden to a Jewish freeman or freedman). But in this case, upon the slave’s release there is no change in the status of his wife and children so far as the master is concerned.
(5) But if the slave declares, “I love my master, and my wife and children”: Note the order here – it is very significant. First and foremost, the slave loves his master and living with his master; his love of his wife and children are only secondary. This is because his wife and children came to him not by his own choice, but by his master’s decision. Thus, the slave views his wife and children as mere extensions of his slave existence.
I do not wish to go free: It should be noted that in Jewish society there existed the institution of so-called “patriarchal slavery,” an arrangement by which a slave was considered, as it were, a junior member of the family (in contrast to the “industrial” slavery that was rampant in Egypt, Greece and Rome). The “family slave” performed his duties under entirely reasonable and normal conditions, and was guaranteed food and clothes, and a roof over his head. A person who enjoys that kind of life has no need for freedom, which, in truth, would only get in his way.
Be that as it may, even that type of slave is expected to understand that a desire to live a life of slavery in any form is itself despicable, and nothing to be proud of. For this reason, the Torah prescribes that a slave who declines to go free, even in order to maintain a status quo that quite suits him, must undergo the piercing of his ear.
(6) His master shall take him before God: Hebrew Elohim most often means “God,” as translated here. But it can also simply mean “judges” (which is in fact how the halachah understands this verse).
If we interpret this verse in the first sense (“before God”), the owner of the slave is declaring: “May the Almighty be a witness, that this person, of his own free will, wishes to remain a slave, rather than taking advantage of the gift of freedom that God has bestowed on every human being.”
But in the second sense (“his master shall take him before the judges”), the idea is that this slave, six years earlier, came before the court, who authorized his sale as a common thief. And now, the procedure that allows the slave to refuse his freedom and remain enslaved, must also take place with the Jewish judges presiding.
For the understanding of the term Elohim as variously referring either to the Almighty, or to human judges or other public officials, or to alien deities (celestial angels worshipped by humans), see Bible Dynamics on Genesis, §5.4.
He shall be brought to the door or the doorpost: This is seen as an allusion to the Exodus from Egypt, “the house of bondage” (20:2). At that time, God commanded that the lintel and the two doorposts of every Jewish home be smeared with the blood of the Passover sacrifice (12:22). Remembering that event here serves as a rebuke to the slave who now, of his own volition, is renouncing his freedom.
And his master shall pierce his ear with an awl: This recalls the giving of the Torah. At the Revelation at Sinai, this slave heard with his own ears the first of the Ten Commandments: “I the Lord am your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt, the house of bondage.” And yet, he still wants to remain a slave.
Pierce his ear: This means his earlobe.
And he shall then remain his slave for life: The literal translation is “his slave forever.” In practice, however, such extended slavery lasted only until the next occurrence of the Jubilee year in its fifty-year cycle. The Torah prescribes (Lev. 25:8-13) that in each such Jubilee year a “reset” takes place in the Land of Israel: property and persons revert to their original ownership and social status. Patrimonial land that had at some point been sold would automatically return to its original owner, and Jewish “slaves for life” went free even against their will (see our commentary on the given passage in Leviticus for further details).
(7) When a man sells his daughter as a slave, she shall not be freed as male slaves are: When the slave is a woman, the rules for her release from slavery are completely different.
A man could sell his own young daughter as a maidservant, but only in a situation where, due to indigence, he had no hope of ever marrying off his daughter in the normal manner, and he wished to set her up with a more prosperous family in advance.
This was possible only for the father of a young girl, up to age twelve. By Torah law, a girl becomes an adult at age twelve, from which time there is no provision for a father or anyone else to sell any woman into servitude.
(8-9) If she proves to be displeasing to her master, who designated her for himself, he must let her be redeemed; he shall not have the right to sell her to outsiders, since he broke faith with her. And if he designated her for his son, he shall deal with her as is the practice with free maidens: The girl had to serve until she reached adulthood, and the master or his son was then expected to marry her, but they had no right to resell her to a third party. Moreover, the presumption was that entering into the marriage would be to her advantage, and that she herself would therefore opt in favor of it. If, however, the maidservant herself, upon reaching the age of twelve, decided to decline marriage either to the master or to his son, or if the marriage did not happen for any other reason, she was free to leave.
He shall not have the right to sell her to outsiders: The Hebrew for “outsiders” is here le-am nochri; literally, “to a foreign people.” And indeed, since am most typically means “nation,” some translations do render this verse as “he shall not have the right to sell her to a foreign nation.”
But that rendering is indefensible, since it is forbidden to sell a Jewish girl to a “foreign nation” under any circumstances whatsoever, and not only when her master (or his son) will not be marrying her upon her reaching adulthood. Thus, the Torah would have had no reason to forbid it specifically in this case.
Actually, the word am has yet another meaning: “relatives” or “family,” which is the sense in which the word am is used here; that is, the master is prohibited from passing the girl on to anyone in any other family except his own family, i.e., himself or his son (we do not find the Hebrew word am used in this sense anywhere else in Tanakh, although that meaning is in fact preserved in the Arabic language).
(10) If he marries another, he must not withhold from this one her food, her clothing, or her conjugal rights: While not encouraging polygamy, the Torah does permit it. But it defends the right of every wife – no matter how many other wives her husband has – to food, clothing, and satisfaction of her sexual needs.
(11) If he fails her in these three ways, she shall go free, without payment: The “three ways” are not referring to the previous verse (food, clothing, and cohabitation), but to the earlier verses.
That is, if the master who had bought this maidservant as a young girl failed to fulfill any of the three conditions – to marry her himself, to marry her to his son, or to reduce her ransom (according to the number of years she had already lived with him) – then he had to release her free and clear.
19.3. Laws of Murder and Kidnapping (21:12-36)
(12) He who fatally strikes a man shall be put to death.
(13) If he did not do it by design, but it came about by an act of God, I will assign you a place to which he can flee.
(14) When a man schemes against another and kills him treacherously, you shall take him from My very altar to be put to death.
(15) He who strikes his father or his mother shall be put to death.
(16) He who kidnaps a man — whether he has sold him or is still holding him — shall be put to death.
(17) He who insults his father or his mother shall be put to death.
(18) When men quarrel and one strikes the other with stone or fist, and he does not die but has to take to his bed —
(19) if he then gets up and walks outdoors upon his staff, the assailant shall go unpunished, except that he must pay for his idleness and his cure.
(20) When a man strikes his slave, male or female, with a rod, and he dies there and then, he must be avenged.
(21) But if he survives a day or two, he is not to be avenged, since he is the other’s property.
(22) When men fight, and one of them pushes a pregnant woman and a miscarriage results, but no other damage ensues, the one responsible shall be fined according as the woman’s husband may exact from him, the payment to be based on reckoning.
(23) But if other damage ensues, the penalty shall be life for life,
(24) eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot,
(25) burn for burn, wound for wound, bruise for bruise.
(26) When a man strikes the eye of his slave, male or female, and destroys it, he shall let him go free on account of his eye.
(27) If he knocks out the tooth of his slave, male or female, he shall let him go free on account of his tooth.
(28) When an ox gores a man or a woman to death, the ox shall be stoned and its flesh shall not be eaten, but the owner of the ox is not to be punished.
(29) If, however, that ox has been in the habit of goring, and its owner, though warned, has failed to guard it, and it kills a man or a